|
SUBSTANCES
in alphabetical order |
STRUCTURE and PROPERTIES |
TYPICAL EXAMPLES of USES of the substance which you should be able you
relate
to the substances structure and properties |
|
A
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
ACETIC ACID and
VINEGAR |
See
ETHANOIC ACID for uses. |
More on carboxylic acids
at
GCSE Extra Organic Chemistry Notes,
see also ESTERS and
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS. |
|
ACIDS
HCl,HNO3,
H2SO4
CH3COOH
etc. |
Compounds containing an 'acidic' H that can be replaced by a
metal or ammonium ion. Acids react with metals, oxides, hydroxides and
carbonates to form salts. If soluble n water give a pH < 7. |
Uses of acids: Look up individual
acids by name for their uses, too many to list here. Detailed chemistry notes on
Acids, Bases, Alkalis, pH,
Neutralisation & Salts GCSE Revision Notes. |
|
ACRYLIC MATERIALS
e.g.
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), man-made organic polymers. |
Large organic
molecules formed by polymerising unsaturated molecules
(alkenes with the C=C double carbon=carbon bond group) such as methyl
acrylate (methyl propenoate), methyl methylacrylate
(methyl 2-methyl propenoate), acrylonitrile
(propenenitrile), acrylic acid (propenoic acid). PMMA when
cast in sheets has the trade name Perspex. |
Uses of acrylic
materials: They make tough flexible
plastics or sticky resins that can solidified in context
e.g. paints, moulded bone substitute. These resins and
plastics have a huge range of uses. Poly(methyl acrylate) is
used in emulsion form in textile and leather finishes,
lacquers, paints, adhesives and safety glass layers (can
replace glass in many situations).
Poly(methyl methylacrylate), PMMA is a clear plastic material
(Perspex) which can be injection moulded and extruded into a
variety of products e.g. transparent impact resistant
screens like car headlamps-aircraft windows, aquarium tanks,
eye lenses, bone substitutes, signs. Acrylic paints consist of PMMA
'resin' suspended in water mixed with the colour pigment.
Polyacryonitrile is used to make artificial fibres and
elastomers (materials with elastic rubbery properties) for
the textile industry. |
|
ALCOHOLS (compounds)
e.g. CH3OH,
CH3CH2OH etc. |
Organic compounds of C,
H and O atoms forming a homologous series of molecules
containing the hydroxyl functional group -OH. They are colourless
molecular liquids at room temperature. |
Uses of alcohols: Wide range of uses e.g.
fuels, solvents, esters, starting molecule to make other
molecules. Best to see methanol,
ethanol
('alcohol') and esters. |
|
ALKALIS |
Dissolve in water to
give alkaline solutions of pH > 7 because the hydroxide ion,
OH-, is formed. |
Uses of alkalis: Best to look up individual
acids by name for their uses e.g.
sodium hydroxide,
calcium hydroxide.
Their single biggest function is to make salts by reaction
with acids. Detailed chemistry notes at
Acids, Bases, Alkalis, pH,
Neutralisation & Salts GCSE Revision Notes |
|
ALKALI METALS |
Group 1 elements of the periodic table.
See also GCSE/IGCSE
Alkali Metal Notes and
Advanced Level s-block notes |
Uses of alkali metals: See individual metals and their compounds e.g.
sodium,
sodium chloride etc. |
|
ALKALINE EARTH METALS |
Group 2 elements of the periodic table. |
Uses of alkaline earth
metals: See individual metals and their compounds e.g.
calcium,
calcium carbonate etc. |
|
ALKANES (compounds)
Homologous series of
hydrocarbon compounds of general formula
CnH2n+2
where n = 1, 2, 3 etc. |
Covalent saturated
hydrocarbon molecules consisting of combinations of carbon
and hydrogen atoms.
Flammable, smelly colourless
gases or liquids or white waxy solids of little odour, depending on the value
of n. |
Uses of alkanes: Widely
used as fuels from natural gas, petrol, central heating oil,
paraffin/candle wax etc.
see also
methane,
ethane, propane,
butane
and
GCSE notes on
Oil and its useful
products |
|
ALKENES (compounds)
Homologous series of
hydrocarbon compounds of general formula
CnH2n
where n = 2, 3, 4 etc. |
They are small
unsaturated covalent hydrocarbon molecules of carbon and
hydrogen atoms. They have a C=C double bond which makes them
reactive. The first few in the
series are the most useful and are pungent smelling
colourless gases. |
Uses of alkenes: Alkenes
are not used directly for anything BUT they are readily
converted to other very useful organic molecules e.g. you
can add water to make ethanol,
as unsaturated monomer molecules they can be polymerised to
make useful polymer-plastic materials called poly('alkene
name') e.g. ethene makes poly(ethene).
See also
ethene, propene and
GCSE notes on
Oil and its useful
products |
|
ALLOYS a mixture of metal atoms with other metal or non-metal
atoms |
Huge
range of mainly solid (sometimes liquids) mixtures of a
metal mixed with other metals or non-metals. They are good
conductors of heat/electricity but can have a wide variety
of strengths and melting points.
Metal structure & properties
notes |
Uses of alloys: Huge
range, need to look up individual alloys in this list or
elsewhere. By varying the mixture you can design an alloy
material to suit a wide range of applications and uses e.g.
alloys like steel,
brass,
nitinol/NiTi,
|
|
ALUMINIUM (aluminum,
element)
Al atoms |
Relative low
density ('light'), quite strong, high melting metal and a
good conductor of heat and electricity.
See
Metal structure & properties
notes and Al is obtained from bauxite ore, see
Extraction of Metals |
Uses of aluminium: Used
for electrical power
lines-cables (with copper), saucepans (less so, aluminium
ions are harmful if aluminium dissolves in fruit juices), many alloys e.g. with magnesium to make
strong light metal fabrication products like aircraft wings,
food and drink containers and kitchen foil. |
|
ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE
(compound)
Al(OH)3 |
It is an amphoteric
hydroxide, and with acids it will react as a mild base to
neutralise acids - hence its use as in ant-acid medicines. |
Uses of aluminium
hydroxide: Used in antacid mixtures because it will
neutralise acids.
|
|
AMALGAM (mixture of
metal atoms) |
Alloy mixture of mercury and
other metals. |
Uses of amalgam:
Initially prepared by the dentist as a paste which
solidifies to make a dental filling. |
|
AMINO ACIDS (organic compound) |
These covalent molecules usually contain a carboxylic group
(-COOH) and the amino group (-NH2). When pure
they are colourless crystalline substances which usually
dissolve in water. |
Uses of amino acids:
The body needs amino acids and gets them from the
digestion of protein from meat, fish, eggs, cheese and grain
etc. The body then uses them to build up its own required
protein structures from muscle fibres to enzymes. |
|
AMMONIA and AMMONIUM SALTS (compounds)
NH3 molecules
NH4 ... compounds |
Ammonia is a small covalent
molecule of nitrogen and hydrogen. Its a colourless pungent
smelling gas that is very soluble in water. It is a
base/alkali and reacts with acids to form salts.
Ammonium salts are colourless ionic
crystalline solids which are soluble in water. |
Uses of ammonia:
Neutralised by acids fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate
and ammonium nitrate to provide
plants with the essential element nitrogen. It is oxidised
(plus water) to manufacture nitric acid
which is used in fertiliser and organic dyestuff
manufacture. Ammonia is used in nylon manufacture and the aqueous solution used in the home in
oven cleaning products.
Uses of ammonium salts: Ammonium chloride paste
is the electrolyte in zinc carbon batteries. As already
mentioned - typical fertiliser
salts ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate
and ammonium phosphate.
See
GCSE notes on Ammonia and
Nitric Acid and
Acids, Bases, Alkalis, pH,
Neutralisation & Salts GCSE Revision Notes |
|
ANTIOXIDANTS (usually
organic compounds, naturally found and manmade) |
These are usually
organic molecules with quite variable molecular structure.
They slow down oxidation rates in auto-oxidisable substances
by removing highly reactive species like free radicals.
|
Uses of antioxidants:
They are added to protect/preserve foods, particularly those
containing fat. They are used to reduce the
ageing/deterioration of rubber and plastics. The body needs
anti-oxidants to reduce the potential harm of free radicals. Vitamins C
and E function as antioxidants and must fruits and
vegetables contain antioxidants. |
|
ANTISEPTICS (usually organic
compounds) |
Usually organic molecules, often based on phenol. Dettol and
TCP antiseptics are formulations of chlorinated phenol
molecules. Ethanol and iodine have powerful antiseptic
properties. |
Antiseptics kill microorganisms but are safe enough to use
on the skin. Ethanol is widely used in hand washes in
hospitals and iodine is a disinfectant for surgical
procedures e.g. for treating skin prior to an operation.
They are not as strong acting as
disinfectants and can be
used safely on skin and other tissue cells you wish to leave
unharmed. |
|
ARGON
(element)
Ar atoms
TOP OF PAGE
|
Colourless chemically unreactive gas ('inert') belong to the
'Noble Gases' Group 0 of the Periodic Table. |
Uses of argon: It is its
chemical inertness that makes them so useful. A small amount
is in light bulbs to minimise evaporation of the metal at
the high temperatures of the filament but will not oxides
the metal. It is used in steel
making by bubbling it through the mixture to allow stirring
of the mixture and prevent oxidation of the metals in the
hot liquid mixture. |
|
B
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
BAKELITE
phenol-formaldehyde resin compounds |
BAKELITE is a hard brittle
plastic or thick resin made from phenol and formaldehyde
(methanal). When solid it has a strong cross-linked polymer
structure which is an excellent electrical insulator and
quite heat resistance - its a thermosetting polymer. |
Uses of bakelite:
These phenol-formaldehyde plastics/resins have a wide
rage of uses e.g. electrical fittings, saucepan handles, ... (but now replaced by
PVC and poly(propene). |
|
BAKING SODA |
see
SODIUM HYDROGENCARBONATE |
Uses of baking soda: see
SODIUM HYDROGENCARBONATE |
|
BASES |
Substances that react with acids, the neutralisation
reaction producing salts. If soluble in water they are
called alkalis. |
Uses of bases:
Need to look up individual bases/alkalis like
ammonia,
sodium hydroxide,
calcium oxide etc. |
|
BAUXITE |
A mineral ore consisting
mainly of aluminium oxide. |
Uses of bauxite: One of
the main ores for extracting the metal
aluminium. |
|
BIODEGRADABLE
MATERIALS |
A term, usually
applied to waste materials, meaning that they will be
naturally broken down by natural means so as not to leave a
potential pollutant. |
Uses of biodegradable
fuels:
Biodegradable plastic are being developed and
technical progress seems good so far! |
|
BIOFUELS |
Biofuels are
organic fuel molecules made from some naturally grown crop. |
Uses of biofuels:
e.g. sugar beet to produce
sugar which is fermented into ethanol. Rape seed oil can be
made into biodiesel for agricultural vehicles. |
|
BRASS (alloy mixture)
Cu + Zn atoms |
A metal made from
mixing copper and zinc. Copper is quite weak and zinc is
brittle, but the mixture is quite strong and hard wearing. |
Uses of brass:
Brass has many uses e.g. wire, ammunition cartridge
cases, tubing, casting decorative objects or plaques. |
|
BROMINE
Br2 molecules
and compounds |
Bromine is a dark
red low boiling point covalent liquid. It forms both ionic
and covalent compounds. |
Uses of bromine: The
element is not used directly but is converted into important
compounds. It is added to ethene to make (covalent)
1,2-dibromoethane which is used in manufacturing
anti-knocking agents in motor fuels. Other organo-bromine
compounds are used as flame-retardants which inhibit
combustion if materials catch fire, to make fumigants in
pest control and disinfectants. Silver bromide (ionic AgBr) is
used in photography - the photographic film emulsion layer
that reacts to light. |
|
BRONZE |
Alloy mixture of the
metals copper and tin. The tin hardens and strengthens the
relatively weak copper. |
Uses of bronze:
This strong hard wearing easily cast metal is used
for cog wheels, ships propellers, statues, coins. |
|
BUCKMINSTER FULLERENES |
See
CARBON |
Uses of carbon: See
CARBON See also
Giant covalent structures and
large organic molecules |
|
BUTANE (compound)
C4H10
molecules
TOP OF PAGE
|
A colourless pungent
petrol like smelling hydrocarbon gas belonging to the
homologous series of covalent organic molecules called
alkanes. |
Uses of butane:
Liquified under pressure and stored in thick steel
fuel gas tanks e.g. calor/bottled gas.
|
|
C
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
CADMIUM (element)
Cd atoms
and compounds |
CADMIUM is a white lustrous
metal, moderately reactive to form salts with acids. |
Uses of cadmium: Used in
metal electroplating, alloyed with copper for tramway wires,
some rechargeable batteries (NiCad cells). Cadmium compounds are
used as pigments (cadmium sulphide CdS is yellow),
plasticizers for plastics, phosphors in colour TV tubes. |
|
CALCIUM
(element)
Ca atoms |
A hard grey-white
lustrous meal. Very reactive and rapidly dissolves in most
acids forming salts. Because its high reactivity it will
displace many other metals from their compounds. |
Uses of calcium: Calcium
is used to extract metals like thorium, vanadium and
zirconium from there compounds by displacement reactions, a
deoxidisers (e.g. it can be added to a molten metal mixture
to remove traces of oxygen and it is used in alloys too. As
its ion, Ca2+, it is an important dietary element
for the
body - calcium compounds are needed for the structure of bones
and teeth. |
|
CALCIUM CARBONATE (compound)
CaCO3, Ca2+CO32- |
An ionic white solid
compound. Occurs naturally as the sedimentary rock limestone, which is an
important raw material for both the construction and
chemical industry. It is insoluble in water but dissolves in
acids to form salts. It also occurs as the metamorphic rock
marble which is much harder and less prone to
weathering and can be polished to fine surface finish. |
Uses of calcium
carbonate : Uses of limestone: Used in the manufacture
of iron & steel - slag removal, neutralise soil acidity, road making, stone
block building material, making cement by roasting limestone
with clay in a rotary kiln, blackboard chalk, heated in a
kiln to make calcium oxide
(lime, quicklime used to control excess acidity of
agricultural land). Marble is used for building stones,
flooring and statues, but much more expensive than
limestone. |
|
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE (compound)
Ca(OH)2 |
An ionic compound, a
white powder that is slightly soluble in water to give an
alkaline solution of ~pH 12. Its a base and neutralises
acids forming calcium salts. |
Uses of calcium
hydroxide : Uses of slaked lime: When mixed with water it
makes a white slurry used to 'whitewash' houses (quite an
exothermic reaction). Use in agriculture to control soil
acidity. Sometimes called 'slaked lime' because it is
formed from calcium oxide ('lime') + water. |
|
CALCIUM OXIDE (compound)
CaO, Ca2+O2- |
A white high
melting ionic solid which is slightly soluble in water to
give an alkaline solution ~pH 12. It is a base and so will
neutralise acids to form salts. |
Uses of calcium oxide :
Uses of lime : Uses of quicklime: It is used in steel making
instead of limestone to remove the last silica and other
mineral impurities as slag. It is known as lime/quicklime
and is also used to control the acidity of soil when the pH
is too low for good crop/plant growth. |
|
CALCIUM SULPHATE
CaSO4, Ca2+SO42- |
A white ionic
compound that is slightly soluble in water. |
Uses of calcium sulfate: Plaster of Paris is made
from calcium sulfate and water. |
|
CARBOHYDRATES (organic
compounds) e.g. sugars and starches. |
Small to huge
covalent molecules of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Most
naturally occurring sugars contain 6 or 12 carbon atoms e.g.
C6H12O6
glucose/fructose
C12H22O11
sucrose
(C6H10O5)n
starches are natural polymers where n is a very large number
of repeating units. |
Uses of carbohydrates: Sugars
are used in food preparation as a sweetening agent and
provider of energy (high on calories) and starches like
cornflower are used as thickening agents. For more details
see individual substances e.g.
glucose and Starch.
|
|
CARBON (element)
C atoms
Three allotropes,
graphite, diamond, fullerenes, all solids. |
(i) Coal: Mainly carbon from plant remains but contains small amounts of
minerals and organic compounds. Coke is made by roasting
coal at a high temperature which drives off organic tar,
ammonia gas and water.
(ii)
Graphite: It
has a porous structure so readily absorbs gases and
certain dissolved compounds in solutions. Slippery black
solid, high melting point, relatively good conductor of heat
or electricity, doesn't dissolve in anything. Charcoal and
coke have very porous graphitic structure.
(iii) Diamond:
A very hard and high melting colourless (usually) crystals.
Refracts light strongly to give vivid 'sparkling rainbow
colour' effects.
(iv) Buckminster
Fullerenes (bucky balls) and carbon nanotubes:
Nanotubes are very strong and conduct electricity.
Nanoparticles in
general have different properties to the bulk material and
their structures are manufactured by building them
molecule-by-molecule or by 'stripping' a material down to
nanoscale size and characteristics. |
Uses of carbon in its
many forms: (i)
A high % of coal is carbon, an important fossil fuel.
Anthracite is almost pure carbon and cleaner burning. Uses of
coke: An important industrial and domestic solid fuel.
It is the
reducing agent (O remover) in the blast furnace for the
conversion of iron oxides into iron and domestic fuel.
(ii) Graphite is Electrodes in
aluminium manufacture by electrolysis of aluminium oxide.
Finely powdered charcoal, mainly graphite, is used for
decolourising solutions and removing 'taste' and 'odours' in
water purification and deodorising e.g. shoes! Graphite is
used in 'lead' pencils and in lubricants, contact brushes in
electric motors/dynamos.
(iii) Diamonds
are used in cutting
tools, jewellery - lustrous, usually colourless?, but
attractive sparkling effects in light.
(iv) Buckminster
Fullerenes 'bucky balls' can 'cage' other molecules and
may be used in drug delivery systems, sun creams. Carbon
nanostructures: Nanotubes are used as semiconductors
in the electronic industry (part of an electrical circuit), sun creams, textiles,
sports equipment e.g. reinforce graphite/carbon fibres in tennis rackets
(strong and light), single crystal nanowires for computer
processors, mobile phone batteries, catalysts attached to
nanotubes which have a very large surface area (rates of
reaction factor).
More details on giant
covalent structures, allotropes of carbon and large organic
molecules |
|
CARBON DIOXIDE (compound)
CO2 molecules |
Small covalent molecule
of carbon and oxygen. Colourless, odourless gas that doesn't
support combustion.
O=C=O is a slightly
acidic gas when dissolved in water - moderately soluble. |
Uses of carbon dioxide:
Fire extinguishers,
carbonated 'fizzy' drinks, dry ice (solid blocks at -78oC)
to create smoke effects on stage.
|
|
CARBON MONOXIDE
(compound)
CO molecules |
Small covalent molecule. Toxic colourless
odourless gas. |
Uses of carbon monoxide: Formed from coke in the blast furnace and acts as a reducing
agent to free the iron from iron oxide ore. The excess can
be burned as fuel. It is used in the synthesis of the
alcohol methanol by combining
it with hydrogen.
CO + 2H2 ==>
CH3OH |
|
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS (compounds,
'fatty acids')
contains -COOH group |
Covalent molecules
belonging to a homologous series of organic molecules. |
Uses of carboxylic acids
: Uses of fatty acids: Carboxylic acids have some direct
uses but they are usually converted into a more useful
chemical form e.g. they combine with alcohols to form
esters used in perfumes-fragrances
and food flavourings.
The analgesic/pain
killer aspirin is a carboxylic acid See
GCSE
Extra Organic Chemistry Notes |
|
CATALYSTS (elements,
compounds or mixtures) |
A huge variety of
substances and structures which speed up chemical reactions.
They are obviously important from the chemical economics of
industry to the functioning of our bodies. |
Examples of uses of catalysts:
Iron, Fe atoms, catalyses the combination of hydrogen and
nitrogen to make ammonia. Vanadium pentoxide, V2O5
ionic compound, is used in the conversion of sulphur dioxide
to sulphur trioxide in the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
All enzymes are protein molecules and they control all the
chemistry of living systems and are used for chemical
synthesis in industry e.g. the fermentation of sugar to
alcohol. |
|
CAUSTIC SODA |
see
SODIUM HYDROXIDE |
Uses of caustic soda: See
SODIUM HYDROXIDE solution |
|
CEMENT (mixture of compounds) |
Made by heating
limestone and clay at a
high temperature in a rotary kiln. Chemically it is a
mixture of calcium silicates and calcium aluminosilicates. |
Uses of cement:
ingredient in
concrete, plaster (Portland cement)
and mortar. |
|
CERAMICS (mixtures of
compounds) |
They have giant covalent
structure and are all high melting point, low
thermal/electrical conductivity i.e. good heat/electrical
insulators. |
Ceramics covers a wide
range of materials such as pottery, glasses, cement,
concrete. Uses of ceramics: Pottery from pots to tiles,
panes of glass, glass fibres, cement in concrete in the
construction industry. Need to look up individual materials
e.g. |
|
CFCs
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (compounds) e.g. CCl3F,
CCl2FCClF2 molecules in which all the
H atoms of an alkane are replaced with Cl or F atoms |
CFC chlorofluorocarbons - organic covalent molecules
made of a combination of chlorine, fluorine
and carbon atoms. They are colourless gases
or low boiling point liquids. They are chemically quite
stable, non-toxic and non-flammable i.e. quite safe to use
(or so we thought!). |
Uses of CFCs: Until
recently they have been used extensively in refrigeration
units, air conditioning units, bubbles in expanded plastics
like polystyrene and insulating foams, the propellant gas in
aerosols of deodorants, insecticides etc. They are good
solvents for dry cleaning and cleaning grease off electrical
equipment, but because of ozone layer destruction they are being
replaced by HFCs and HCFCs. |
|
CHLORINE
(element)
Cl2 molecules
and many chlorine
compounds |
Covalent diatomic
molecules. Green gas, highly toxic and slightly soluble in
water to give a weakly acid and strongly oxidising/bleaching
solution. A very reactive element, readily combining with
many metals and non-metals. Look up individual compounds
like sodium chloride. |
Uses of chlorine: PVC plastic manufacture,
water sterilisation, chlorinated hydrocarbons
(organo-chlorine compounds) are used as
solvents, pesticides and disinfectants like TCP
(trichlorophenol). It is combined
with hydrogen to make hydrogen
chloride which is dissolved in water to manufacture
hydrochloric acid. Chlorine is used in the manufacture
of household bleach, industrial bleaches for cotton, linen, wood pulp
and
domestic cleaners. Used in making CFCs
and HCFCs. |
|
CHLOROETHENE (compound)
C2H3Cl,
CH2=CHCl
|
Small covalent gaseous
unsaturated hydrocarbon
molecule known as an alkene (C=C double bond). Colourless gas that can be polymerised to form
poly(chloroethene) by virtue of having a double bond. |
Uses of chloroethene: Polymerising to make
poly(chloroethene) = PVC = polyvinyl chloride which
is a very useful thermoplastic that is tough and a very good
electrical insulator. |
|
CITRIC ACID (organic
compound)
Contains three acidic
-COOH carboxylic acid functional groups |
A naturally occurring
organic molecule classified as a carboxylic acid. |
Uses of citric acid: Found in citrus fruits
e.g. lemon juice. Used in sherbet powders with sodium
hydrogencarbonate to make fizzy drinks - they react together
to form carbon dioxide gas. Used in baking powders
containing sodium hydrogencarbonate - they also react together to
form carbon dioxide gas which produces the rising action in
the bread dough or cake mix etc. |
|
COKE |
See
CARBON |
Uses of coke: See
CARBON |
|
COLOURINGS compounds and
mixtures of all sorts of materials |
A huge variety of
materials, often organic molecules, natural or manmade to
bring colour to materials. See also DYES. |
Examples of colourings:
Tartrazine is used as an orange food colouring. Iron oxide
as haematite is a red-brown pigment (was used by prehistoric
man!). Synthetic colours are used to make textiles (clothing,
curtains, carpets etc.) and plastic materials more
attractive. Transitional metal oxides are used to colour
ceramics from tiles to glass e.g. cobalt oxide to give the
cobalt blue colour. |
|
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
(mixtures) |
A wide variety of structures, but the idea is to combine
different materials with different characteristics to
produce a 'composite' with the desired properties for a
particular purpose. Any component on its own would not meet
the required specification. |
Examples of uses of composite
materials: glass fibre in
reinforced plastic (boats, car bodies), reinforced glass
(windows), reinforced concrete with steel rods
(beams-bridges, buildings etc.), glass reinforced and bone,
carbon fibres/nanotubes in sports equipment like
clubs, racquets, bicycle frames and also in protective equipment
like body armour (strong and light). |
|
CONCRETE
(mixture of compounds) |
Prepared by mixing
cement, sand, gravel and water.
The mixture becomes hydrated and the components bond
together to form a hard tough material we call concrete. |
Uses of concrete:
An important structural material for bridges and buildings
etc. etc. |
|
COPPER (element)
Cu atoms |
Quite a strong malleable
metal with excellent thermal (heat) and electrical
conduction properties.
Metal structure & properties
notes and
GCSE/IGCSE notes on
Transition Metals and
Advanced Level 3d-block
Transition Metal Notes |
Uses of copper: Copper wiring, alloyed
with zinc to make brass, piping for plumbing e.g. central
heating systems, hot water cylinders. Used in coinage - alloyed with nickel for coins, |
|
COPPER(II) SULPHATE
(compound)
CuSO4 or
Cu2+SO42- |
An ionic compound of
copper(II) and sulfate ions. Anhydrous copper sulphate is
white, but you normally encounter it as the hydrated blue
crystals containing water of crystallisation of formula
CuSO4.5H2O
which readily dissolves in water to give a blue solution. |
Uses of copper(II)
sulfate: Copper sulphate solution is the electrolyte in the
purification of copper by electrolysis and in copper plating
conducting objects (an example of the technique known as
electroplating - see
GCSE notes on the Extraction of Metals).
Copper is a trace element in our/plants diet and copper
sulfate is a soluble means of delivering it. Used as a wood
preservative. Fungicide??
|
|
COSMETICS |
See Fragrances and perfumes |
Uses of cosmetics:
See Fragrances and perfumes |
|
COTTON |
A natural organic
polymer fibre. |
Uses of cotton: Textile
industry for sheets and clothing etc. |
|
CRUDE OIL
TOP OF PAGE
|
See
OIL |
Uses of crude oil: See
OIL |
|
D
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
DDT |
DDT is
a chlorinated aromatic organic compound that is soluble in
organic solvents but not water. It is a harmful chemical
which unfortunately is chemically very stable in the
environment! |
Uses of DDT: Used as a
powerful insecticide e.g. mosquito control in countries
where malaria is problem, but now banned in many countries
because it builds up in food chains and affects the life of
animals at or near the top of a food chain because it is
stored in fatty tissues causing poisoning and genetic
defects in offspring. |
|
DETERGENTS
(compounds)
which are all surface
active agents - so called 'surfactants' |
Detergents are
usually organic molecules with both a hydrophilic ('water
liking') and a hydrophobic ('water hating') molecular
groups. The hydrophilic group is a neutralised acidic group
and is the smallest part of the molecule and strongly
interacts with water. The much longer hydrocarbon chain (R
in formulae below) interacts with water insoluble materials
like fat/grease. Examples: The potassium salt of a long
chain carboxylic 'fatty' acid or the sodium salt of a
sulphonic acid.
R-COO-Na+ or
R-OSO2-Na+ |
Uses of detergents:
Detergents help remove dirt from the surface of materials in
combination with water. They are described as surface active
materials or surfactants. They help clean by lowering
the surface tension of water so that it wets the surface
more thoroughly, separating the grease and dirt from the
surface and suspending the dirt in the water so it can be
washed/rinsed away. There are two main types of detergent:
Soap detergents
('soapy soaps') are made from reacting animal fats or
vegetable oils with a strong base/alkali like sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.
Soapless
detergents ('detergents') are made from
hydrocarbon molecules from oil which can be reacted with
concentrated sulphuric acid to make sulfonic acids.
Washing powders or
liquids are developed into complex formulations and may
contain detergents, sequestering/complexing agents to soften
hard water, enzymes to break down protein food/blood stains,
optical brighteners to give fabrics a bright-white look, an
oxygen bleach and finally a dash of perfume to give the
washed clothes a distinctive and attractive 'freshness'. |
|
DIAMOND |
See
CARBON |
Uses of diamonds:
CARBON |
|
DISINFECTANTS
(elements or compounds which act as sterilising agents) |
Disinfectants are
chemicals like chlorine, ozone, sodium chlorate(I) and are
usually powerful oxidising agents. Nano sized particles of
silver. They kill micro-organisms like harmful bacteria. |
Uses of disinfectants:
Chlorine/ozone used in water purification. Sodium
chlorate(I) is used in toilet cleaning/bleaching agents.
Sprays of nano sized particles of silver have powerful
antiviral, anti-fungal and anti-bacterial action e.g. to
sterilise an operating theatre. Unlike
antiseptics, disinfectants
cannot be used on the skin and any other living tissues
because there chemical action is to strong for tissue you do
not want to kill. |
|
DNA (compound)
Deoxyribonucleic
acid. |
Long organic
molecules of repeating units of a combination of base
on a sugar-phosphate backbone. Structurally it is described
as a double helix of two polynucleotide chains. It carries the genetic code for the whole
structure of an organism from a single self-reproducing cell
to the most complex of multi-celled organisms. |
Uses of DNA: DNA is used
forensic analysis to identify individuals at a crime scene
from traces of body tissue or fluid material. The
manipulation of DNA is used in the very controversial
subject of genetic engineering with its uses in medicine for
identifying and treating potential health problems and in
agriculture e.g. to develop GM crops resistant to pests. |
|
DRUGS and MEDICINES (inorganic, and often organic
compounds) The 'drug' is a specific molecule with a
particular pharmacological action and a medicine is the
complete formulation of the means of administering the drug
to a patient i.e. the method of delivery. |
A drug is an externally administered substance which
modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body. They may
alter incoming sensory sensations, alter mood or emotional
state, alter physiological state, alter state of
consciousness, activity level or coordination. Most of the
medicines you take e.g. aspirin and other analgesics contain
an active organic molecule. There are literally thousands of
drugs-medicines on the market.
See GCSE
notes on Extra Organic Chemistry for the molecular structure
of some analgesics. |
A few of the thousands
of uses of drugs and uses
of medicines in the 21st century: Analgesics
medicines are painkillers and reduce pain e.g. aspirin,
ibuprofen, paracetamol, codeine. Powerful and dangerous pain
killing drugs include morphine and molecules derived from
heroin. Antibiotics like penicillin are responsible for
saving millions of lives from various diseases by denaturing
harmful bacteria cells. 'Milk of magnesia' to control excess
stomach acidity causing indigestion 'heart burn'.
There are many types or
classes of drugs e.g. drugs which act on the central nervous
system e.g. analgesics, sedatives, tranquilisers, hypnotics,
antidepressants, narcotics, anaesthetics. Drugs which kill
bacteria like antibiotics and sulfonamides (sulphonamides),
anti-cancer drugs are used in chemotherapy ('chemo') like
cis-platin, anti-viral drugs help fight HIV infections,
cardiovascular drugs to control blood pressure e.g. lower
it, control or stimulate heart beat. Anti-inflammatory drugs
suppress the bodies immune system if it overacts to some
perceived threat. Drugs used to help maintain a healthy
digestion system e.g. antacids, laxatives and drugs to treat
ulcers in the stomach and intestines. We have a lot to thank
chemistry for providing these treatments, there are always
but as ever, with human ingenuity and application of
scientific knowledge, there is plenty of scope for
self-abuse, excessive profiteering by multi-international
drug companies etc. |
|
DYES
- DYESTUFFS (compounds)
TOP OF PAGE
|
The original dyes
came from plant or animal materials e.g. blue woad,
orange-red alizarin and indigo blue from plants and red
cochineal from dried insects. These days (in fact from the
late 19th century onwards) most dyestuffs are
synthesised organic molecules like the azo dyes. |
Uses of dyes: Synthetic
dyestuffs are used for dyeing fabrics and colouring
plastics. Apart from natural wood and stone (not
stained/painted) just about everything else around you in
the home is coloured with something or other and much of
processed food too! - just check out the E numbers! |
|
E
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
ELECTROLYTES (compound
or mixture) |
Electrolytes are any aqueous (water) solution
or molten material containing ions which are free to move
and carry an electric current e.g. sodium chloride solution
(Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq)
ions) or molten aluminium oxide (Al3+ and O2-
ions). |
Uses of electrolytes: Industrial
uses include all electrolysis processes like aluminium
extraction from molten aluminium oxide (purified bauxite
ore), purifying copper using copper electrodes and
copper(II) sulphate solution.
Revision notes on the
Extraction of Metals Electrolytes are used in fuel
cells, zinc-carbon batteries (ionic ammonium chloride paste)
and sulphuric acid is used in lead-acid batteries, so all
battery/cell systems need an electrolyte. For
living systems, healthy cell activity requires the presence
of certain ions both inorganic and organic e.g. the nervous
system works via electrical impulses transmitted by the
movement of ions, so sodium, chloride, potassium other ions
are needed for this purpose in our diet. |
|
EMULSIFIERS (usually
mixtures of organic compounds from natural or man-made
sources) |
An emulsion is usually
one liquid/solid dispersed (but NOT dissolved) in another
liquid (often water) and an emulsifying agent inhibits the
separation of the two main components. Emulsifying agents
are surfactant molecules having a 'water
loving head' part (hydrophilic) and 'water hating tail' part
(hydrophobic) groups in the same molecule i.e. they can
interact with different immiscible liquids like oil and
water. |
Uses of emulsifiers and emulsifying agents:
Emulsion paints can be oil or water based and the pigment
dispersed in the mixture too. Lecithin, alginates and
mustard, egg yolk etc. are used as emulsifying agents in
foods. Salad dressings (based on olive oil plus vinegar) and mayonnaise
(stabilised with egg yolk) are emulsions but may need a good
shake before use! Creamy foods, cosmetic foundation creams
and brushless shaving creams are oil-in-water emulsions,
cold creams and cleansing creams are water-in-oil emulsions
and all of these need an emulsifier to stop the components
of the mixture separating out. |
|
ENZYMES
(very complex compounds)
Thousands of different
organic compounds made of combinations of C, H, O, N, often
a metal atom like Fe, Cu or Mg etc. and usually over a 1000
atoms in the molecule. |
These are complex
protein molecules that function as highly specific and
sophisticated chemical biological catalysts, all
extracted plant or animal sources. There are thousands of
them and essential to the life of every cell in every
organism as they control most of the chemical reactions
throughout the structure of an organism. Without these
catalyst the chemistry of life would be too slow to
continue! The names of enzymes end in ...ase e.g. amylase,
protease, invertase, isomerase etc. |
Uses of enzymes: Enzymes
from yeast extract are used in the brewing industry to
convert sugars into ethanol, 'alcohol' for the drinks
industry, or sugar cane into ethanol for biofuels. Some
washing powders contain proteases which are enzyme that
break down proteins such blood or egg yolk stains on
clothes. Proteases break down proteins and are used to
'pre-digest' the protein in some baby foods. Carbohydrases
are used to convert starch syrup into sugar syrup. Invertase
is used to make the sugar for soft chocolates. Isomerase is
used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup, which is
much sweeter and therefore can be used in smaller quantities
e.g. in slimming foods. Pectinase breaks down insoluble
pectin polysaccharides and so is used in clarify fruit
juices. Amylases break down carbohydrates and Lipases break
down fats. Enzymes are used in genetic engineering and
penicillin production. The dairy industry uses enzymes made
by microorganisms (bacteria) to produce yoghurt and cheese
from milk. The bacteria enzymes convert the sugar in milk
(lactose) into lactic acid.
Some
revision notes on enzymes |
|
EPOXY RESIN
Organic compounds -
macromolecules or polymers |
Polyethers (have a C-O-C
linkage) formed by condensing together e.g.
3-chloro-1,2-epoxypropane ('epichlorhydrin') with polyols
like bisphenol. The polyethers need a curing agent to
convert them to resins. The resins are thermosetting to
tough adhesive materials which are chemically resistant and
electrical insulating. |
Uses of epoxy resins:
They are used as adhesives, coatings and in composite
materials. |
|
ESTERS
organic compounds
synthesised by reactions such as:
carboxylic acid +
alcohol ==> ester + water |
Esters form a homologous
series in organic chemistry and prepared by reaction of a
carboxylic acid (or derivative) and an alcohol.
R-COO-R' where R-
= H-, alkyl e.g. CH3-, CH2CH3-
or aryl e.g. C6H5- etc. -R' = alkyl
e.g. CH3-, CH2CH3- or aryl
e.g. C6H5- etc.
Pleasant smelling,
often with a sweetish odour, colourless liquids and
generally harmless chemicals. |
Uses of esters: Esters
are found naturally in fruits (*) but they are now
synthetically manufactured on an industrial scale. They are
used in the cosmetics industry e.g. perfumes-fragrances,
enhancing the smell of household products, 'air fresheners',
food additives e.g. fruit flavourings. They are also
useful organic solvents because they dissolve a wide range
of compounds and they are used as plasticisers to make
polymers more 'plastic'. Some drugs like aspirin are esters
and the insecticides malathion and pyrethrin are also
esters. (*)
Ethyl butanoate has the odour of pineapple and
3-methylbutylethanoate gives pear drop sweets their taste
and smell.
Oils
like olive oil, palm oil etc. are esters of an alcohol
called glycerol. When heated with sodium/potassium hydroxide
they form salts. These are sodium/potassium salts of long
chain fatty acids and are used as soaps. |
|
ETHANE
(compound)
C2H6
or CH3CH3 |
A colourless hydrocarbon
gas belonging to the homologous series of covalent organic
molecules called alkanes. |
Uses of ethane: It
readily burns and so is used as a fuel gas. It can be
cracked to make the more useful ethene.
It is used in very low temperature refrigeration units but
is flammable/explosive with air. |
|
ETHANOIC ACID (compound)
CH3COOH |
Small covalent organic
molecule, strong smelling colourless liquid when pure. It
belongs to the homologous series of organic molecules called
carboxylic acids. |
Uses of ethanoic acid
(uses of 'acetic acid'): Old name acetic acid,
used in the food industry and food preparation e.g. vinegar,
pickling vegetables and eggs. It combines with alcohols to make
... ethanoate esters ('acetates') e.g.
ethyl ethanoate. Ethanoate esters
are used as solvents and in the perfumery-cosmetics/food
industry as fragrances/flavourings. It can be converted to
ethanoic anhydride which is used to manufacture cellulose
ethanoate used for artificial fibres in the textile
industry. |
|
ETHANOL (organic compound)
CH3CH2OH |
Small covalent molecule,
an organic compound of C, H and O atoms belonging to the
homologous series of similar molecules called alcohols.
Highly toxic colourless liquid. In aqueous solution, the
more concentrated - the more dangerous! |
Uses of ethanol ('ethyl
alcohol'): Ethanol is used in
alcoholic drinks and beverages, a solvent, a fuel e.g.
methylated spirits in a camping cooker and as a biofuel from
fermented sugar cane or sugar beet, the ethanol
('alcohol') is distilled off and it
can be blended with petrol. Ethanol is used to manufacture
ethyl .. esters used in the perfumery-cosmetics/food
industry as fragrances/flavourings. Ethanol
is the starting point for the manufacture of other organic
chemicals e.g. oxidised to ethanal ('acetaldehyde') or
ethanoic acid ('acetic acid') which in term are converted to
other useful products. |
|
ETHENE
(organic compound)
C2H4
or CH2=CH2
TOP OF PAGE
|
An unsaturated (C=C
bond) organic covalent molecule belonging to the homologous
series of hydrocarbons called alkenes. Its a colourless
smelly gas. |
Uses of ethene: It
doesn't really have any uses as ethene itself BUT it is as
the starting molecule in the manufacture of a wide range of
products. It is readily polymerised to make the plastic
poly(ethene) - 'polythene'. It can be reacted with
water to make ethanol,
|
|
F
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
FABRICS
(compounds/mixtures) |
Fabric
is a general term for
materials used in the clothing or furniture industry |
Uses of fabrics:
Clothing, textile and furniture industry. |
|
FATS (organic compounds) |
Saturated esters of
glycerol and long chain fatty/carboxylic acids. |
Uses of fats: Hydrogenated
fats like margarine used in the food industry and in the
home. |
|
FATTY ACIDS |
See
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS |
Uses of fatty acids: See
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS |
|
FERTILISERS (compounds
and mixtures) |
See
AMMONIA and
PHOSPHORUS
Mixtures of ammonium
salts, nitrate salts, potassium salts and phosphate salts |
Uses of fertilisers: Added to land to promote
plant growth and increase yields of crops etc. The three
most important elements in the mixture of compounds of a
fertiliser are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, so
fertilisers are often classified by their N P K values. |
|
FIBRE - dietary - large
organic molecules in food of plant origin |
Dietary fibre is can be
defined as non-starch polysaccharides, though plant fibre
can be defined as food components resisting digestion in the
small intestine. Whatever, they are large naturally
occurring polymeric organic molecules of C, H and O atoms. |
Uses of dietary fibre: Important
component in a healthy diet and aid food digestion and the
smooth functioning of the whole of the digestive track. They
are found in plant materials from fruit, grains and
vegetables etc. Fibre is added to many breakfast cereals and
is automatically present in wholemeal bread. |
|
FIBRES - natural or
man-made material (not for food!) |
Apart from carbon fibres
and glass fibres, they are usually long chain organic
polymer molecules. Each fibre is relatively high tensile
strength and when produced is thicker thread or a bulk
composite format, you have a strong and useful material. |
Uses of fibres: Wide range of materials,
including composites, with a wide range of uses e.g. glass
fibres in insulation and fibre optics, carbon fibre
composites in sports equipment, Nylon and Terylene fibres in
the clothing-textile industry. |
|
FLAVOURINGS-FLAVOUR ENHANCERS
(compounds-mixtures) |
Usually salt
(sodium/potassium chloride, NaCl/KCl), organic molecules
like esters and other organic compound/mixtures from plant
or animal extracts which are now widely synthesised to
'mimic nature'.
See
ESTERS |
Uses of flavourings: To
enhance the appeal of food. Monosodium
glutamate is added to a huge range of foods.
See
ESTERS for more examples. |
|
FLUORINE (element)
F2 molecules,
but only used in compound form e.g. combined with metals as a fluoride salts
or combined with non-metals e.g. organic fluorine compounds. |
Fluorine forms ionic
salts with metals e.g. potassium fluoride, KCl or K+F-,
which is a high melting colourless crystalline solid soluble
in water. Fluorine, like chlorine, can replace hydrogen in
alkanes to form organo-fluorine compounds. These are
covalent molecules, low boiling colourless |
Uses of fluorine:
Fluorine is too reactive and highly toxic for any direct
uses so it is used to manufacture other useful fluorine
compounds e.g. it is used
in making CFCs, HFCs
and HCFCs for refrigeration units and the gas in
aerosol sprays. CFCs are being replaced by HFCs because as
upper atmosphere 'pollutant' they cause destruction of the
uv protection ozone layer. Fluoride salts can be added to
domestic water supplies i.e. tap water and toothpaste since
it is believed to improve dental health e.g. stronger enamel
and less tooth decay - but fluorides are potentially harmful
and so the treatment is controversial. |
|
FOSSIL FUELS (mixture) |
See
CARBON and OIL |
Uses of fossil fuels: Coal, coke (made by
heating coal), anthracite, lignite, peat and oil products
are all burned to release heat energy. |
|
FRAGRANCES -
PERFUMES |
See
ESTERS |
Uses of fragrances and
perfumes: See ESTERS |
|
Fullerenes |
See
CARBON |
Uses of fullerenes: e.g.
Buckminster Fullerenes see
CARBON |
|
FUNGICIDES |
They can have a
huge range of chemical structures but they are often
compounds of sulphur, tin, mercury, nickel and copper. |
Uses of fungicides:
Fungicides inhibit fungal growth which attacks wood or
plastic surfaces etc. |
|
G uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
GLASS is a fused mixture made from heating together sand,
sodium carbonate and lime/limestone. The proportions can be
varied and metal and non-metal oxides added to produce
specialised glasses. |
Glass is a curious
substance! Technically it is a supercooled liquid forming a
transparent non-crystalline solid with a giant covalent
structure. It is relatively high melting and a very poor
conductor of heat and electricity i.e. a good insulator. It
is chemically resistant to chemical attack and is
effectively an insoluble substance. |
Uses of glass: Glass is
extensively used for window panes, laboratory glassware,
decorative objects ('glass-china'). Glass fibres, thin
filaments of glass, are combined with resins to produce
composite materials for 'fibre-glass' boat hulls and
car bodies. Glass fibres are used in optical systems in
medicine for internal body examinations and decorative
displays in the home. Soda
glass is cheap but more expensive heat resistant glasses
e.g. Pyrex are used for cooking bowls and laboratory
apparatus. |
|
GLUCOSE (compound)
C6H12O6
molecules |
A covalently bonded
organic molecule and a member of the carbohydrate family of
sugars. |
Uses of glucose: It is
widely used in the confectionery and food industry e.g. sweetener in food,
chocolate etc. It can be fermented by yeast to make
ethanol.
It is the sugar of the blood system and so is added to high
energy drinks to provide a rapid and easily digested source
of energy. |
|
GOLD (element)
Au atoms and gold
salts/complex ion compounds. |
Gold has the typical
properties of a metal e.g. good electrical conductivity,
high melting point, malleable etc., except it is yellowish
in colour and apart from copper, all the other metals are
white-silver-silvery grey. It is a very unreactive metal. |
Uses of gold: Gold bars
are used in monetary systems, jewellery because of its
attractive untarnished look, an infra-red surface reflector,
electrical contacts, tooth fillings. Its compounds are used
in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. |
|
GORETEX
Gore-Tex is a composite
mixture of several compounds |
Goretex consists of nylon laminated with
a poly(tetrafluoroethene)/PTFE or polyurethane membrane. So
it is a composite mixture of polymers. |
Uses of GORETEX: Waterproof
fabrics with
breathability e.g. anoraks and other sports/outdoor
activities gear. The holes in the
PTFE/polyurethane membrane are too small to let liquid water through but
big enough for the vapour of individual water molecules to
pass through ('breathable'). A PTFE/polyurethane
laminate is not strong enough on its own so it needs the nylon
base too. |
|
GRANITE |
An igneous rock
consisting of a mixture of silica based minerals formed from
the slow cooling of magma/lava in the earth's crust. |
Uses of granite: A fine
and expensive building stone which is highly resistant to
weathering - unlike limestone! |
|
GRAPHITE
TOP OF PAGE
|
see
CARBON |
Uses of graphite: see
CARBON |
|
H
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
HAEMATITE |
See
IRON OXIDES |
Uses of haematite: A
principal ore for the extraction of iron. |
|
HALOGENS (elements)
e.g. Cl2,
Br2, I2 molecules |
Group 7 elements
of the periodic table.
Group 7 The Halogens GCSE Revision Notes |
Uses of halogens: Best
to look up individual
elements and their compounds e.g.
fluorine compounds,
chlorine, sodium chloride
and
iodine,
|
|
HCFCs
HYDROCHLOROFLUOROCARBONS and HYDROFLUOROCARBONS HFCs
(compounds)
e.g. CH3CCl2F and
CH2FCF3
|
HCFC
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (combination of H, Cl,
F and C atoms) and HFC hydrofluorocarbons
(combination of H, F and C atoms).
These are organic compounds produced from alkanes by
replacing some of the hydrogen atoms with chlorine or
fluorine atoms. |
Uses of HCFCs and uses
of HFCs: Until recently they have been used extensively in
refrigeration units, air conditioning units, bubbles in
expanded plastics like polystyrene and insulating foams, the
propellant gas in aerosols of deodorants, insecticides etc.
They are good solvents for dry cleaning and cleaning grease
off electrical equipment, but because of ozone layer
destruction they are the use of
CFCs. |
|
HELIUM
(element)
He atoms |
Colourless chemically unreactive gas ('inert') belong to the
'Noble Gases' Group 0 of the Periodic Table. Its density is
much less than air. |
Uses of helium: Balloons
(much safer than explosive hydrogen), oxygen-helium
breathing mixtures for divers. |
|
HERBICIDES (compounds
acting as weed killers) |
They have a
range of chemical structures, though most are synthetic
organic compounds. |
Uses of herbicides:
Herbicides are basically weedkillers or growth regulators
and are usually selective in their effect on plants. |
|
HYDROCARBONS
(compounds)
CxHy,
huge range of the values of x and y e.g. butane C4H10,
ethene C2H4, benzene C6H6
etc. |
Covalent molecule
organic compounds made
up of combinations of carbon and hydrogen. They form several
homologous series e.g. the saturated alkanes like butane, unsaturated
alkenes like ethene and aromatic compounds based on benzene. |
Uses of hydrocarbons:
Alkanes are used as fuels but they, along with alkenes and
aromatics form the starter molecules to make a wide range of
useful products, so
need to look up individual compounds like
methane,
ethene, propane or
butane and the homologous series
of
alkanes or
alkenes to which they belong. |
|
HYDROCHLORIC ACID (compound)
HCl(aq)
aqueous solution |
A strong mineral acid
solution of hydrogen ions, H+ or H3O+
and chloride ions, Cl-. It is manufactured by
dissolving the gas hydrogen
chloride in water. |
Uses of hydrochloric
acid: Widely used in the chemical industry. Reacts with
bases to form chloride salts. Its a catalyst for hydrolysing
sugar cane to glucose. |
|
HYDROGELS |
see
POLYMER GELS |
Uses of hydrogels: see
POLYMER GELS |
|
HYDROGEN (element)
H2
molecules |
Colourless gas, very
flammable and explosive if ignited in air. |
Uses of hydrogen: rocket fuel (mixed with
an oxidant - oxygen supplier), meteorological balloons
(cheaper than helium), potential to be a clean fuel if it
can be economically produced on a large scale - on
combustion just burns to form 'non-polluting' water only,
fuel cells, hydrogenation of unsaturated vegetable oils to
make 'solid' margarine. Combined with chlorine to form
hydrogen chloride which is dissolved in water to make
hydrochloric acid. |
|
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
HCl molecules |
Colourless, choking,
acidic corrosive gas. |
Uses of hydrogen
chloride: It is dissolved in water to
make hydrochloric acid and is used in the manufacture of
organo-chlorine compounds. |
|
I uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
IODINE
(element)
I2
molecules and ionic compounds |
IODINE is a diatomic
covalent molecule. It is an almost black solid that readily
sublimes on gentle heating to give a brilliant purple
vapour. It is virtually insoluble in water but does dissolve
in ethanol (alcohol) and potassium iodide solution. |
Uses of iodine: Iodine solution is an
antiseptic to sterilise wounds ('tincture of iodine'), silver iodide (AgI) is used in photography
in the 'old fashioned' light sensitive emulsion film format. |
|
ION EXCHANGE
RESINS/MINERALS - usually complex naturally occurring
minerals or synthetic polymers. |
Ion exchange materials
can be naturally occurring minerals or synthetic polymers.
Within their structure they have either, immobile positive
cationic groups that can weakly hold onto negative anions
from a surrounding solution, or, immobile negative anionic
groups that can weakly hold onto positive cations from a
surrounding solution (usually aqueous media). In the process
of adsorption on the material, one ion is exchanged for
another. |
Uses of ion exchange
resins which are held in a column and the aqueous solution
passed through: They can soften water by removing calcium
and magnesium ions from the water so a scum does not form
with soap. Using a mixture of a cationic and anionic ion
exchange materials you can deionise water to make pure water
(well at least remove all ions, any non-ionic impurity
molecules will not be removed). Examples off ion exchangers
include naturally occurring zeolite minerals and permutit is
synthetic zeolite used to soften water by exchanging sodium
ions on the permutit for calcium ions from the tap water
(sodium ions do not form a scum with soap). Some washing
powders contain permutit powder. |
|
IRON
(element)
Fe atoms and STEEL ALLOYS -
mixture of Fe atoms plus carbon and other metals and
non-metals |
Iron is a typical metal, high
melting, strong and malleable (particularly when alloyed
with other elements) and a good conductor of heat.
Metal structure & properties
notes and
GCSE/IGCSE notes on
Transition Metals and
Advanced Level 3d-block
Transition Metal Notes |
Uses of iron and uses of
steel alloys: Iron is made into the alloy
steel by mixing it with carbon and other metals like nickel,
chromium etc. It can be used directly for cast iron objects.
Iron and steel have a huge range of uses e.g. car bodies, cookers,
nails, iron catalyst ammonia manufacture, cast iron gates,
important element for living systems e.g. iron ions in
haemoglobin molecules in red blood cells for respiration. Mild steel - car
bodies, machinery. Stainless steel (alloy with chromium) -
cutlery, surgical instruments, chemical plant reactor
vessels. |
|
IRON OXIDES (compounds) |
Found naturally as Fe2O3 iron(III) oxide,
haematite ore and
Fe3O4 magnetite ore. |
Uses of iron oxides: Both haematite and magnetite
are important mineral ores used as source for extracting
iron.
Revision notes on the Extraction
of Metals |
|
J
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
|
|
|
|
K
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
KEVLAR |
Kevlar is a very strong,
flexible and fire resistant polymer. It is a aromatic
polyamide and the rigid linear polymer chains line up to
form strong 2D sheets which strongly adhere to each other at
the molecular level. It is much less dense than metals so
has a much higher strength/weight ratio compared to e.g.
steel. |
Uses of Kevlar: Bullet
proof vests form a strong protective layer. Bicycle tyre
composites containing Kevlar are less likely to puncture.
Kevlar 'rope' is much stronger than the equivalent weight of
steel so it can be used to reinforce car tyres instead of
steel wire. |
|
L
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
LEAD (element)
Pb atoms
and lead compounds |
LEAD
is very malleable and relatively
unreactive metal, typical metallic properties, though too
soft for most structural purposes |
Uses of lead: Lead roofing, electrodes
in lead-acid batteries, the alloy solder used for making
electrical connections in circuits. Lead compounds are used
as 'ant-knock' agents in petrol (being reduced as leaded
petrol replaced by less polluting unleaded petrol), red lead
is used in |
|
LEATHER |
Tough hard wearing
fabric material made from cows skin. |
Uses of leather:
Clothing and furniture industry competing with cheaper
PVC 'artificial
leather' materials. |
|
LIME |
See
CALCIUM OXIDE |
Uses of lime: See
CALCIUM OXIDE |
|
LIMESTONE |
See
CALCIUM
CARBONATE |
Uses of limestone: See
CALCIUM
CARBONATE |
|
LYCRA
TOP OF PAGE
|
See
POLYESTERS |
Uses of lycra: See
POLYESTERS |
|
M
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
MAGNESIUM (element)
Mg atoms |
Magnesium
is a metallic element with
all the typical properties of a metal but quite a low
density. However, it is quite reactive, so it is no good on
its for construction purposes. |
Uses of magnesium: Low density ('light')
high strength aluminium alloys for aircraft parts. Its
capacity to burn brightly sees its use in distress
flares and fireworks - burns with intense bright white flame.
Being so reactive, it is used to extract other (but less)
reactive metals from their ores in an exothermic
displacement reaction. Its higher than iron reactivity
allows it to be used as a sacrificial anode electrode to
protect e.g. steel pipes underground or ships hulls from
rusting, i.e. it stops iron corroding. |
|
MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE
(compound)
Mg(OH)2 |
Ionic compound of the
magnesium and hydroxide ions. A white powder, slightly
soluble in water to give a mild alkaline solution and
neutralises acids. |
Uses of magnesium
hydroxide: Purchased for the home
as the ant-acid mixture 'Milk of Magnesium' to neutralise
excess stomach acid, a cause of indigestion. |
|
MAGNETITE |
See
IRON OXIDES |
Uses of magnetite: See
IRON OXIDES |
|
MARBLE |
See
CALCIUM CARBONATE |
Uses of marble: See
CALCIUM CARBONATE |
|
MEDICINES |
See DRUGS and MEDICINES |
Uses of medicines: See DRUGS and MEDICINES |
|
MELAMINE
and MELAMINE-FORMALDEHYDE RESINS (compounds) |
Melamine is an organic
colourless solid, melting point 354oC. When
polymerised with methanal ('formaldehyde') and other
substances it forms thermosetting resins which are very
stable to heat and light. |
Uses of melamine resins:
Malamine resins are used for hard wearing table tops,
plastic plates, composite worktops, ... |
|
MERCURY (element)
Hg atoms
and compounds |
Relatively low
melting/boiling (for a metal) silvery liquid at room
temperature and an excellent conductor of electricity and
heat. It is a poisonous metal and mercury compounds are
potentially toxic and cause great harm to the central
nervous system. These toxins also build up in animals higher
up a food chain. |
Uses of mercury: Older
thermometers used mercury in the capillary tube, but mercury
thermometers are being replaced by electronic devices or
cheaper safer ethanol ('alcohol') filled thermometers.
Mercury vapour is used in some types of fluorescent lamps.
Mercury is a component in amalgam for 'teeth filling' in
dentistry. Mercury
compounds are used as fungicides e.g. in seed dressing to
prevent mould growth. Some types of batteries contain
mercury compounds causing a recycling headache. Other
mercury compounds are used as pesticides. |
|
METALS (elements or
alloy mixtures) |
Usually high tensile
strength, good thermal conductivity, hard-tough, yet
flexible too, some excellent electrical conductors. |
Uses of metals: Best to
look up individual metals e.g.
aluminium, brass,
bronze, cadmium,
copper, gold,
iron, lead,
mercury, nickel,
platinum, silver,
solder, steel,
tin, titanium,
vanadium, zinc |
|
METHANE (compound)
CH4 molecules |
A colourless pungent
petrol like smelling hydrocarbon gas belonging to the
homologous series of organic covalent molecules called
alkanes. |
Uses of methane: Natural gas consists of
a high % of methane and it is also obtained in the refining
of crude oil. It is used as a
fuel ('natural gas') and is reacted with chlorine to make
chloromethanes. It is a source of hydrogen for the synthesis
of ammonia. |
|
METHANOL (compound)
CH3OH |
Small covalent molecule,
an organic compound of C, H and O atoms belonging to the
homologous series of alcohols. Colourless toxic liquid that
causes blindness. |
Uses of methanol ('methyl
alcohol'): It can be oxidised to methanal
('formaldehyde') which is used to make thermosetting
polymers like melamine resins. It is a useful solvent for
both inorganic and organic compounds. |
|
MILK OF MAGNESIA |
see
MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE |
Uses of milk of
magnesia: see
MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE |
|
MINERALS - all sorts of
naturally occurring materials
TOP OF PAGE
|
The word 'minerals' might mean rocks, metal ores etc. or
essential components in a healthy diet like calcium and iron
compounds. |
Uses of minerals: Need
to look up individual materials. |
|
N
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
NANO PARTICLES,
NANOCOMPOSITES
Structures 1-200 nm size. |
Nanoparticles in
general have different properties to the bulk material and
their structures are manufactured by building them
molecule-by-molecule or by 'stripping' a material down to
nanoscale size and characteristics. |
Uses of nano particles
and uses of nanocomposites: Nano-sized
particles of silver used in sterilising sprays and wound
dressing. Nanoparticles used ins sunscreens.
For carbon nanotubes see
CARBON |
|
NATURAL GAS |
See
METHANE |
Uses of natural gas: See
METHANE |
|
NEON
(element)
Ne atoms |
Colourless chemically unreactive gas ('inert') belong to the
'Noble Gases' Group 0 of the Periodic Table. |
Uses of neon: Used in
fluorescent tubes - red neon lights, gas lasers. |
|
NICKEL (element)
Ni atoms |
A typical transition
metal, high density, high melting/boiling point, high
tensile strength and good conductor of heat and electricity.
See also
Metal structure & properties
notes and
GCSE/IGCSE notes on Transition Metals |
Uses of nickel: Nickel metal is a
catalyst for the hydrogenation of alkenes i.e. unsaturated
to saturated fats in margarine manufacture. Catalyst in
catalytic converter in vehicle exhausts. A component of many
alloys e.g. coinage metals, steels, ... Batteries - NiCad
Cells. The ferromagnetic alloy Alnico in permanent magnets. |
|
NITINOL/NiTi
(mixture) |
A shape memory alloy
mixture of the transition metals nickel and titanium. If
deformed an object made of nitinol regains its shape on
heating or release from a physically stressed situation. |
Uses of nitinol: They are used as
thermostats in electric kettles, coffee pots etc.,
superelastic spectacle frames, stents for veins, ... |
|
NITRIC ACID, NITRATES and NITRO... (compounds)
HNO3
in
aqueous solution
Nitrate salts (ionic)
and also nitro-organic covalent compounds |
Nitric acid (HNO3)
is usually in aqueous solution form and contain hydrogen
ions, H+, and nitrate ions, NO3-.
It reacts with bases/alkalis to form nitrate salts (e.g.
potassium nitrate, KNO3). Concentrated nitric
acid reacts with organic compounds e.g. benzene forms
nitrobenzene (C6H5NO3) |
Uses of nitric acid -
uses of nitrates: Making 'artificial' nitrate fertilisers e.g.
ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate. Explosives like nitroglycerine
which
is in gelagnite/dynamite is manufactured by reacting
glycerol with concentrated nitric acid. Nitro-organic
compounds are important intermediates in the manufacture of
synthetic dyestuffs.
GCSE notes on Ammonia and
Nitric Acid |
|
NITROGEN (element)
N2
molecules |
Colourless, relatively unreactive gas BUT
NOT inert. |
Uses of nitrogen: Obtained from air. Used to synthesise
ammonia by combining with hydrogen. Liquid nitrogen is a
VERY low temperature
coolant (-196oC !). It is used in food packaging
to inhibit oxidation of food, it replaces
air as oxygen will e.g. oxidise fats and make them rancid
|
|
NOBLE GASES
He, Ne, Ar etc. atoms |
Group 0 of the Periodic
Table. All colourless, odourless and
chemically VERY unreactive gases. |
Uses of noble gases: Look up individual gases:
helium,
neon and argon.
|
|
NYLON |
Nylon is a polyamide
class of synthetic fibres and thermosoftening plastics. It
is made by a condensation polymerization reaction between
aliphatic diamines and aliphatic dicarboxylic acids. When
processed into fibres the molecules neatly line up giving
strong intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonding) giving a
light material of high tensile strength. |
Uses of nylon: An
important synthetic fibre for the textile industry - clothing, curtain
materials, parachutes, sleeping bags. The fibres are strong
are used for fishing lines and climbing ropes. Its tough
enough, i.e. hard wearing enough to be used for engineering
components. |
|
O uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
OIL -
crude petroleum oil - mixture of hydrocarbon molecules |
OIL is
a thick
yellow-brown sticky liquid. The viscous liquid can be
fractionally distilled into various fractions.
See also
VEGETABLE OILS |
Uses of oil: Huge
range of uses as fuels for different purposes e.g. methane
('natural gas'), propane, butane, LPG, petrol, diesel, paraffin, candle wax
(also used as water-proofing material, bitumen - road
surfacing and waterproofing material. Some
fractions can be 'cracked' to make alkenes which can be made
into polymers and alcohols etc. Best to consult
GCSE notes on
Oil and its useful
products for more details. |
|
ORGANIC ACIDS |
See
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS,
AMINO ACIDS and
ESTERS |
Uses of organic acids: |
|
OXYGEN (element)
O2
molecules
TOP OF PAGE
|
|
Uses of oxygen: Oxygen cylinders in
hospital to aid patient respiration. The oxidant for welding
using ethyne (acetylene) fuel and the oxidant for the fuel of
rocket engines. Used in steel making to burn off impurities.
Used in the oxidation of ammonia
to nitric acid. |
|
P
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
PERFUMES - FRAGRANCES |
See
ESTERS |
Uses of
perfumes/fragrances: See ESTERS |
|
PESTICIDES
- INSECTICIDES |
They can have a
huge range of chemical structures, some are natural
products, but most are synthetic organic molecules. |
Uses of pesticides:
Insecticides are designed to kill insects by poisoning e.g.
on plant protection or an insect repellent agent e.g. on
holiday with the 'midges'! |
|
PETROLEUM OIL |
See OIL |
Uses of petroleum oil: |
|
PHOSPHORUS (element) PHOSPHORIC(V) ACID and PHOSPHATES
(compounds)
P atoms and compounds
like the phosphorus oxyacids and their salts |
Phosphorus is a non-metallic low melting
solid element and with only a few uses as the element, but
it is widely encountered in one of its many important compounds such as
phosphate salts. Phosphoric(V) acid (H3PO4)
forms phosphate salts with bases/alkalis e.g. dihydrogen
potassium phosphate KH2PO4. |
Uses of phosphorus:
Phosphorus compounds are used in matches. Phosphate compounds are
used in fertiliser salts, e.g. ammonium phosphate and potassium
phosphate by neutralising phosphoric acid with
bases-alkalis. Phosphates are used as flameproofing agents.
Other phosphorus compounds are used in pesticides, special
glass and china ware, alloys such as steels and phosphor
bronze, detergents. |
|
PHOTOCHROMICS -PHOTOCHROMIC PAINTS and PHOTOCHROMIC
PIGMENTS (compounds)
See also
THERMOCHROMICS |
Photochromic/photochromatic
compounds
change colour on exposure to uv light, usually from sunlight.
The molecules change structure on absorption of uv photons
('packets of light energy') and the different molecular
structures create different colours. This behaviour is
reversible. |
Uses of photochromics:
Photochromic pigments are used in transitions eyeglasses
e.g. sunglasses that increasingly darken with increasing
sunlight intensity, so reducing sunlight glare. Photochromic
paints are used in several novelty applications e.g. on
toys, cosmetics and T-shirts where the most colourful of
patterns show up more clearly the brighter the sunlight. |
|
PLASTICS - See
POLYMERS |
Look up individual
plastic or polymer by name. |
Uses of plastics: Look
up individual plastic or polymer by name e.g.
poly....,
PVC,
Nylon etc. |
|
PLASTICISERS (compounds)
plasticizer compounds |
A high boiling organic
liquid. |
Uses of plasticizers:
Plasticisers are added to thermosoftening plastics to make
them more 'plastic' or pliable e.g. PVC covering of electric
cables. They also make the plastic more 'workable' i.e. to
mould or extrude into a particular shape. |
|
PLATINUM (element)
Pt atoms
and compounds |
A typical transition
metal and a very unreactive element i.e. doesn't corrode
easily but it, and its compounds, have powerful catalytic
properties. |
Uses of platinum: Jewellery.
Catalyst in catalytic converter in vehicle exhausts
(platinum-rhodium alloy).
Cis-platin (cisplatin)
[PtCl2(NH3)2 and similar compounds
using organic bidentate ligands are anti-cancer (anticancer)
drugs used in chemotherapy. |
|
PMMA |
See
ACRYLIC MATERIALS |
Uses of PMMA: See
ACRYLIC MATERIALS |
|
POLYAMIDES |
See
NYLON and
PROTEINS |
Uses of polyamides: |
|
POLY(CHLOROETHENE) compound
polyvinyl chloride (PVC,
PVCu = uPVC = PVC-U)
-(CHCl-CH2)n-
where n = is big i.e. >1000 |
Made from polymerising
chloroethene ('vinyl chloride'). A strong tough hard wearing
thermosoftening plastic material with excellent electrical
insulation properties. PVC contains a plasticiser to make it
more flexible. PVCu does not contain a plasticiser i.e. an
unplasticised plastic but, like PVC, it still contains
stabilisers and other additives. |
Uses of
poly(chloroethene)/polychloroethene: Plasticized PVC
is used for artificial/fake leather fabrics for the clothing
and furniture industry e.g. hand bags, sports bags, sofa
coverings etc. It is used for the cable sheathing covering
electrical wire which needs to be a bit flexible.
Unplasticised PVC, which is harder and tougher is used
electrical fittings like plugs and sockets, window frames,
guttering, drain pipes, door handles etc. It has the advantage of not rotting,
weather resistant, hard wearing and keeps its shape through
daily/seasonal temperature changes. |
|
POLYESTERS
(compound) |
Polyesters are polymers
made by condensing together a diol and a dicarboxylic acid.
They are usually manufactured as fibres e.g. Terylene
(commercial name). The most common one was called polyethylene
terephthalate, known in the business as PET! |
Uses of polyesters: Terylene is used
in the textile industry for
clothing, curtain materials, fishing lines, parachutes,
sleeping bags and as
Lycra for sports clothing. It is also manufactured as film
form for ... |
|
POLY(ETHENE)
(compound)
'polythene', -(CH2-CH2)n-
where n = is big i.e. >1000 |
Organic polymer-plastic
made from polymerising ethene. These long organic molecule
is a white 'waxy' solid with a low density,
flexible, low thermal and electrical conductivity
(insulators) and cheap to manufacture. |
Uses of
poly(ethene): It is a cheap but very useful plastic used for
plastic bags, buckets, bowls, clingfilm and bottles. Its old or commercial
names include polyethylene, polythene and polyethene. Tiny
cellulose particles are used as a filler in polythene to
make biodegradable bags. |
|
POLYMER GELS |
e.g. hydrogel
materials have a cross-linked polymer structure which is
inflated in contact with a solvent. They can swell and
shrink by a factor of up to a 1000 times in volume due to
changes in temperature or pH. |
Uses of polymer gels: Hydrogels have the
potential to be used as artificial muscles, robot actuators,
absorbers of toxic chemicals.
|
|
POLYMERS - PLASTICS |
Long organic molecules
usually with low density,
flexible, low thermal and electrical conductivity
(insulators), but quite a range of properties and uses these
days. They are made by polymerising small molecules called
monomers into long chain molecules called polymers. |
Uses of polymers: Huge
variety of polymers and uses, so best to look up individual
plastic or polymer by name e.g.
poly...., PVC,
Nylon etc.
|
|
POLY(METHYL
METHYLACRYLATE) |
PMMA See
ACRYLIC MATERIALS |
Uses of poly(methyl
methylacrylate)/PMMA: See
ACRYLIC MATERIALS |
|
POLY(PHENYLETHENE) |
See
POLYSTYRENE |
Uses of
poly(phenylethene) |
|
POLY(PROPENE) (compound)
'polypropene', -[CH2-CH(CH3]n-
where n = is big i.e. >1000 |
Organic polymer-plastic
made from polymerising the monomer propene. These long organic molecule
is a white 'waxy' solid with a low density,
flexible, low thermal and electrical conductivity
(insulators) and cheap to manufacture. |
Uses of poly(propene):
It is stronger and more hard wearing than
poly(ethene) and is used for making crates, fibres and ropes (old or
commercial names: polypropylene, polyprene and polypropene). |
|
POLYSTYRENE
correct systematic
name poly(phenylethene)
-[CH2-CH(C6H5]n-
where n = is big i.e. >1000 |
This
polymer-plastic is made by polymerising the monomer
phenylethene (old name styrene). |
Uses of polystyrene: In
expanded form (bubble filled) damage protection
material used in packaging products, heat insulation material,
toys and models. |
|
POLY(TETRAFLUOROETHENE)
PTFE, -(CF2-CF2)n-
where n = is big i.e. >1000 |
This
polymer-plastic is made by polymerising the monomer
tetrafluoroethene. It is a very tough hard wearing
thermoplastic. Commercial names include PTFE, Teflon and
Fluon. It has a high softening point ~320oC,
excellent chemical resistance, low coefficient of friction
and good electrical insulating properties. |
Uses of
poly(tetrafluoroethene)/uses of PTFE:Teflon/Fluon coating for
non-stick pans. Electrical fittings.
|
|
POLYTHENE |
see
POLY(ETHENE) |
Uses of polythene: see
POLY(ETHENE) |
|
POLYURETHANE |
Polyurethanes are
condensation polymers made from polyhydroxy compounds and
polyisocyanates. Expanded polyurethane means it is had an
inert gas blown in it on formation to make polyurethane
foam. |
Uses of polyurethane:
Mainly used in foam form e.g. cushion fillers, thermal
insulation, ... |
|
POLYVINYLCHLORIDE PVC |
see
POLY(CHLOROETHENE) |
Uses of
polyvinylchloride: see
POLY(CHLOROETHENE) |
|
PRESERVATIVES |
food. A variety of chemicals are used e.g. ethanoic acid
(vinegar), SO2?, benzoic acid |
Uses of preservatives:
They are used to inhibit the decline in quality of
stored-packaged processed food. |
|
PROPANE (compound)
C3H8
molecules |
A colourless pungent
petrol like smelling hydrocarbon gas belonging to the
homologous series of covalent organic molecules called
alkanes. |
Uses of propane: Bottled
fuel gas, liquefies under the high pressure inside the steel
cylinder (red-orange cylinders in the UK). |
|
PROPENE (compound)
C3H6,
CH3CH=CH2 molecules |
An unsaturated (C=C
bond) organic covalent molecule belonging to the homologous
series of hydrocarbons called alkenes. Its a colourless
smelly gas. |
Uses of propene: To make
the plastic-polymer
poly(propene). |
|
PROTEINS
See also
ENZYMES and SILK |
Polyamides/polypeptides are natural polymers formed by the
polymerising of amino acids to give a protein. |
Uses of proteins: Basic food
ingredient for supplying amino acids (after digestion) for
the building of all body tissues and all enzymes are also
protein - those essential catalysts that control so much of
a living organisms chemistry. |
|
PVC or
PVCu/uPVC/PVC-U |
See
POLY(CHLOROETHENE) |
Uses of PVC: See
POLY(CHLOROETHENE) |
|
Q
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
QUARTZ |
See
SILICON DIOXIDE |
Uses of quartz: See
SILICON DIOXIDE |
|
QUICKLIME |
See
CALCIUM OXIDE |
Uses of quicklime: See
CALCIUM OXIDE |
|
R
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
RARE EARTH METALS |
All have classical metallic
lattice structures and the most commonly used compounds are
their oxides. Rare Earths are incredibly important in modern
society as the metals themselves, or one of their compounds,
is used in many instruments, machines, devices, consumer
goods etc. - especially if any device or machine contains an
electromagnet. There is concern that the mineral ore
resources for these 'rare metals' are quite limited and
mainly in China? They could become in short supply giving
countries with these resources quite some economic power!
and those countries using them (every country!) a potential
economic consumer problem! |
Examples of Rare Earth metal
symbols, names and examples of uses of the metal or one of
its compounds:
La, Lanthanum: High refractive index glass e.g. camera lens
Ce, Cerium: Chemical oxidising agent, polishing powder,
yellow colors in glass and ceramics, catalyst for
self-cleaning oven
Pr, Praseodymium: Rare-earth magnets, lasers, green colours
in glass and ceramics
Nd, Neodymium: Rare-earth magnets, laser, violet colors in
glass and ceramics, ceramic capacitor
Sm, Samarium: Rare-earth magnets, lasers
Eu, Europium: Red and blue phosphors, lasers
Gd, Gadolinium: Rare-earth magnets, high refractive index
glass or garnets, lasers, x-ray tube, computer memory chips
Tb, Terbium: Green phosphors, lasers, fluorescent lamps
Dy, Dysprosium: Rare-earth magnets, lasers
Ho, Holmium: Lasers
Yb, Ytterbium: Infrared lasers, chemical reducing agent,
high-temperature superconductors |
|
ROCK SALT
TOP OF PAGE
|
See
SODIUM CHLORIDE |
Uses of rock salt: See
SODIUM CHLORIDE |
|
S
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
SALT (common salt) |
See SODIUM CHLORIDE |
Uses of salt: 'Common
salt':
See SODIUM CHLORIDE |
|
SALTS |
Ionic compounds usually
prepared by neutralising an acid with a metal, oxide,
hydroxide or carbonate. |
Uses of salts: Need to look up
individual salt by name. |
|
SAND |
Fine grains of mineral
granules from weathered rocks including sandstone or
granite. Chemically it is mainly silicon dioxide (silica,
quartz). |
Uses of sand: Ingredient in concrete
and mortar. Children's play. |
|
SANDSTONE |
Sedimentary rock. |
Uses of sandstone: A
common building stone. |
|
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY |
Shape memory alloys like
NiTi or nitinol, (an alloy of the metals nickel and
titanium), have the ability to regain their original shape
when heated. |
Uses of shape memory
alloys: They are used as
thermostats in electric kettles, coffeepots etc.,
superelastic spectacle frames, stents for veins, ... |
|
SHAPE MEMORY
POLYMER |
A modern plastic
material, which when distorted in some way, regains its
shape on heating. |
Uses of shape memory
polymers: In the future uses
may include biodegradable surgical sutures that will
automatically tighten to the correct tension, self-repairing
car bodies that will recover their desired stylish shape on
gentle heating after a knock-bump causes a dent. |
|
SILICON DIOXIDE |
sand quartz |
Uses of silicon dioxide: found as quartz in granite |
|
SILK |
Silk is naturally
occurring protein fibre (polyamide) made from the cocoons of
the silk moth. The plastic Nylon was developed as synthetic
alternative to silk |
Uses of silk: Expensive
clothing.
|
|
SILVER
(element) Ag
atoms
and compounds |
Silvery
solid with typical metallic properties. Doesn't corrode
easily and malleable. |
Uses of silver:
Jewellery because it doesn't corrode easily and attractive
metallic lustre. Silver plating. Nano-sized particles (1-100nm) of silver
have anti-bacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties
used in sterilising sprays to clean operating theatres in
hospitals and to coat the inner surfaces of refrigerators.
Silver chloride (AgCl) is used in photography. |
|
SLAKED LIME |
See
CALCIUM
HYDROXIDE |
Uses of slaked lime: See
CALCIUM
HYDROXIDE |
|
SLATE |
Naturally metamorphic
rock formed from compressed shales and giving a hard rock
readily cleaved into thin slabs - slates! |
Uses of slate: Slates
are a very
durable roofing material, only weathers very slowly. |
|
SMART MATERIALS
e.g. smart alloys |
A range of modern
materials whose properties change with a change in the
surroundings. |
Uses of smart materials:
e.g. the material responds to changes in temperature, light
intensity or pH etc. Need to look up individual materials. Smart alloys
return to their original shape on gentle heating after being
stressed into a different shape. |
|
SODIUM (element)
Na atoms |
An unusually soft and
low melting metal but an excellent conductor of heat. |
Uses of sodium: Liquid
sodium has been used as a heat transfer agent e.g. in a
nuclear reactor. Sodium is a powerful reducing agent and is
used in organic synthesis and extracting less reactive
metals from their oxides via displacement reactions. There
are few uses for the element itself BUT lots of important
sodium compounds, some of which are listed below. |
|
SODIUM CARBONATE
(compound)
Na2CO3
or (Na+)2CO32- |
Ionic compound of sodium
and carbonate ions, a white powder when anhydrous, soluble
in water to give a moderately alkaline solution ~pH 11 |
Uses of sodium
carbonate: Used in the manufacture of glass, soap,
detergents and paper. It can be used to soften
water because the carbonate ion combines with the calcium
ion (causing hardness - forms scum with soaps) precipitating
it out as insoluble calcium carbonate. Its usually purchased
as hydrated sodium carbonate, commercially called 'washing
soda' which has the formula Na2CO3.10H2O |
|
SODIUM CHLORIDE (compound)
NaCl or Na+Cl- |
Ionic compound of sodium
and chloride ions. High melting, hard, brittle colourless
crystals. Found naturally as rock salt. |
Uses of sodium chloride: De-icing roads, common
table salt for cooking/flavouring food, preservative. It forms
the basis of what is called the Chlor-Alkali Industry since
it is the raw material for the extraction-manufacture of the elements
sodium, chlorine and hydrogen and from these you can further
manufacture hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide,
bleaches, .. |
|
SODIUM HYDROGENCARBONATE
'sodium bicarbonate'
compound NaHCO3 |
Ionic compound made up
of sodium and hydrogencarbonate ions. White powder, slightly
soluble in water to give a very mildly alkaline solution ~pH
8 i.e. a weak base. |
Uses of sodium
hydrogencarbonate : uses of 'sodium bicarbonate': Used in 'baking soda' as
a cooking agent to bring about the 'rising action' - it
readily decomposes on heating to release carbon dioxide gas. An important ingredient in antacid indigestion tablets
to neutralise excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Used
in sherbet powders with citric acid to make fizzy drinks -
they react together to form carbon dioxide gas. Used in
baking powders containing citric acid or tartaric acid, they
react together to form carbon dioxide gas which produces the
rising action in the bread dough or cake mix etc. |
|
SODIUM HYDROXIDE
the compound NaOH |
Ionic compound of sodium
and hydroxide ion. White solid, very soluble in water to
give a strongly alkaline solution, once known as 'caustic
soda' because of its highly corrosive nature -
particularly to the skin! |
Uses of sodium
hydroxide: Sodium hydroxide solution is known as CAUSTIC
SODA and is used
in manufacture of oven cleaners and drain cleaners, detergents, soaps,
fibres, ... Making
sodium salts from acids including soluble aspirin since
aspirin is an insoluble organic acid. |
|
SOLDER |
Alloy mixture of lead and tin. |
Uses of solder:
Electrical connections on circuit board. |
|
STARCH
(compound)
(C6H10O5)n
n = a very large number of repeating units. |
Starch is a natural
carbohydrate polymer based on 'sugar' units linked together
by the elimination of water. Starch is made from corn,
wheat, potatoes, rice and other cereals by steeping in
water, milling and sedimentation. |
Uses of starch: Thickener
in cooking, adhesive for paper and cloth, an inert dilutent
in foods and drugs. Starch can be split into amylose and
amylopectin. Amylose is used for edible films and
amylopectin in textile finishing and as a thickener in food. |
|
STEEL |
See
IRON |
Uses of steel: See
IRON |
|
SUGARS |
See
CARBOHYDRATES |
Uses of sugars: See
CARBOHYDRATES |
|
SULFUR/SULPHUR
(element)
S atoms and compounds |
The element sulphur is a
yellow solid with typical non-metal properties i.e. low
melting, low density and poor conductor of heat and
electricity. There is a huge variety of useful sulphur
compounds e.g. polysulphides, organo-sulfur compounds and
the two oxides (see below) |
Uses of sulfur : uses of
sulphur: vulcanising of rubber,
sulphur compounds are used as fungicides. It can be converted to sulphuric acid by
oxidation and reaction with water in the Contact Process.
|
|
SULFUR DIOXIDE/ SULPHUR
DIOXIDE compound of SO2 molecules |
Sulphur dioxide, a
covalent molecule, is a choking harmful acidic gas. It is
formed on burning sulphur or a by-product of metal
extraction of metals from metal sulphide ores. |
Uses of sulfur dioxide :
uses of sulphur dioxide: bleaching agent,
preservative - kills bacteria, fungicide. It is oxidised to
sulphur trioxide in the Contact Process for manufacturing
sulfuric acid. |
|
SULFUR TRIOXIDE/ SULPHUR
TRIOXIDE compound of SO3 molecules |
Sulphur trioxide, a
covalent molecule, colourless gas/white solid, is a highly
corrosive dangerous substance. |
Uses of sulphur trioxide
: uses of sulfur trioxide: Most is converted into sulphuric
acid in the Contact Process. |
|
SULFURIC ACID/SULPHURIC ACID
compound
H2SO4 |
When pure it is a
dangerous oily liquid. The covalent molecules dissolves in
water to give an aqueous solution of hydrogen ions, H+,
and sulfate ions, SO42-. It reacts
with metals, oxides, hydroxides and carbonates to form
sulphate salts. |
Uses of sulphuric acid: Sulfuric acid solution
is used in lead-acid batteries, detergent manufacture,
fibres, pigments e.g. used in making white titanium dioxide,
in
acid baths to clean metal surfaces, fertilisers e.g. the salt
ammonium sulphate. Concentrated sulphuric acid is used in
making dyestuffs, explosives. |
|
SURFACTANTS compounds
which act as surface active agents |
A surfactant is a type
of chemical that lowers the surface tension of water, which
is particularly high due to the strong hydrogen bonding
intermolecular forces. |
Uses of surfactants:
Soaps and detergents form the biggest use, they allow
surfaces to be 'wetted' and interact with both water and
grease/dirt etc. to dislodge them to give the washing
action. |
|
SWEETENERS
TOP OF PAGE
|
A synthetic or naturally
occurring compound that is used to sweeten the taste of
food. |
Uses of sweeteners:
Sugar is used in many recipes and products fro cakes to
breakfast cereals. Aspartame ... |
|
T
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
TARTARIC ACID an organic
compound containing the
acidic COOH functional group |
A naturally occurring
organic molecule classified as a carboxylic acid. |
Uses of tartaric acid: Used in baking powders
containing sodium hydrogencarbonate, they react together to
form carbon dioxide gas which produces the rising action in
the bread dough or cake mix etc. |
|
TEFLON |
See
POLY(TETRAFLUOROETHENE) |
Uses of teflon: See
POLY(TETRAFLUOROETHENE) |
|
TERYLENE |
See
POLYESTERS |
Uses of terylene: See
POLYESTERS |
|
TEXTILES |
See
FIBRES |
Uses of textiles: See
FIBRES |
|
THERMOCHROMICS -
THERMOCHROMIC PAINTS and THERMOCHROMIC PIGMENTS (compounds)
See also
PHOTOCHROMICS |
Thermochromic/thermochromatic
compounds
change colour when heated or cooled. When sufficient heat is
absorbed i.e. a high enough temperature is reached, the
molecule changes structure. The two different structures
create different colours. The process is reversed on
cooling. |
Uses of thermochromic
paints : uses of thermochromic pigments: The change in
colour with change in temperature by thermochromics is put
to use in 'flat thermometer strips' used in aquariums or on
the forehead! Thermochromic pigments can be used for novelty
effects e.g. on coffee mugs so that they change colour when
filled with the hot liquid. |
|
THERMOSOFTENING
PLASTICS/THERMOPLASTICS |
Type of plastic that
softens when heated and can be reshaped in a mould or an
extrusion machine. |
Uses of thermosoftening
plastics : uses of thermoplastics: See individual materials
e.g. e.g. poly....,
PVC,
Nylon,... etc. |
|
THERMOSETTING
PLASTICS/THERMOSETS |
Type of plastic that
sets to give a giant covalent structure that is tough,
strong and heat resistant. |
Uses of thermosetting
plastics : uses of thermosets: See individual materials e.g.
bakelite,
melamine resins, ... |
|
THINSULATE |
Thinsulate is an
artificial synthetic fibre made from mixtures of
plastics-polymers like PET, poly(propene), acrylics and
others. |
Uses of thinsulate:
Thinsulate is a commercial name for fibres (thin)
used for thermal insulation (insulate) in clothing
e.g. outdoor gear. Duck down is considered a high quality
traditional natural insulation material, but thinsulate is
at least as good, and is less water absorbent more crush
resistant. |
|
TIN (element)
Sn atoms |
A typical metal in many
of its properties e.g. high density and good heat and
electrical conductor, but has low tensile strength and
brittle when pure. |
Uses of tin: Tin plating
and a component of alloy solder used for making electrical
connections. |
|
TITANIUM (element)
Ti atoms and compounds |
Titanium is a typical
Transition Metal in many ways.
Titanium(IV) oxide, TiO2, is chemically very
stable brilliant white ionic compound. |
Uses of alloys: Titanium
alloys are light and strong and used in the aircraft
construction industry and reactor vessels in chemical plants
- both contexts require strength and good anti-corrosion
properties. Titanium(IV) oxide,
'titanium dioxide' is a white powder used as a white pigment
in paints. |
|
TRANSITION METALS
elements
Fe, cu atoms etc. and
many compounds |
Blocks of metals which
are characterised by high density, high melting points, high
tensile strength, good heat and electrical conductors. The
metals and their compounds have good catalytic properties
and many of the compounds are highly coloured. See also
Metal structure & properties
notes and
GCSE/IGCSE notes on
Transition Metals and
Advanced Level 3d-block
Transition Metal Notes |
Uses of transition
metals: Cobalt compounds give a blue colour to
stained glass and are useful catalysts. Chromium
is used in stainless steels and chromium plating to prevent
corrosion chromium oxides and chromates give orange and
green colours to glass. Need to look up other
individual metals and their compounds e.g.
copper, iron,
titanium, |
|
U
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
UREA compound
CH4N2O
or (H2N)2C=O |
Urea is simple organic
nitrogen containing covalent molecule. It occurs naturally
in the urine of all mammals. |
Uses of urea: It is
mainly used as a fertiliser due to its high nitrogen
content. It is also used in the manufacture of adhesives,
pharmaceutical products and dyes. |
|
V
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
VANADIUM (element)
V atoms and compounds |
VANADIUM is a typical
Transition Metal.
Metal structure & properties
notes and
GCSE/IGCSE notes on
Transition Metals and
Advanced Level 3d-block
Transition Metal Notes |
Uses of vanadium:
Vanadium is major component in many alloys like steel (iron
alloy) and vanadium-aluminium alloys. Vanadium(V) oxide,
'vanadium pentoxide', is the catalyst in the Contact
Process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. |
|
VEGETABLE OILS |
Unsaturated
polyunsaturated monounsaturated |
Uses of vegetable oils: An important food
e.g. in cooking, salad dressing, conversion to margarine,
biofuel, soap |
|
VINEGAR and ACETIC ACID |
See
ETHANOIC ACID |
Uses of vinegar/acetic
acid: See
ETHANOIC ACID |
|
W
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
WASHING POWDERS |
Specially designed detergent
formulations. |
Uses of washing powders:
Mainly designed to be used for washing clothes and sheets in
a washing machine. |
|
WASHING SODA |
See
SODIUM CARBONATE |
Uses of washing soda: See
SODIUM CARBONATE |
|
WATER (compound)
H2O
molecules |
A simple covalent
molecule. A colourless liquid freezing at 0oC and
boiling at 100oC. |
Uses of water: What
would we do without it! Its a very useful solvent and
reaction medium. Essential for life. Huge quantities are
used in industrial processes as a solvent, reactant and
coolant (as it is in a car radiator). |
|
WOOD (complex mixture of
compounds) |
Wood is a complex,
primarily organic substance, with cell walls containing
large carbohydrate polymer molecules including cellulose and
lignin which is a phenylpropene polymer, together smaller
amounts of a variety of inorganic and organic compounds. |
Uses of wood: A
structural material for building construction, furniture,
carved objects, doors etc. Paper is made from wood. Wood is
roasted with most air excluded to make its carbonised form
we call charcoal. |
|
WOOL (complex mixture of
compounds)
TOP OF PAGE
|
Wool is a natural
protein fibre called keratin mainly obtained from sheep. |
Uses of woollen fleece: The
clothing and textile industry |
|
X
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
Xenon (element) |
Colourless gas of single
atoms only |
Uses of Xenon:
fluorescent bulbs, flash bulbs and lasers. |
|
Y uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
| |
|
|
|
Z
uses of
materials - elements, compounds and mixtures |
|
ZINC (element)
Zn atoms and
compounds. |
ZINC
is a typical metal.
Important compounds include zinc oxide, ZnO, zinc sulphide, ZnS.
See also
Metal structure & properties
notes and
GCSE/IGCSE notes on Transition Metals |
Uses of zinc: prevent iron/steel
rusting - galvanising coating and blocks for sacrificial corrosion
attached to underground pipes or ships hulls. It is mixed with
copper to make the attractive hard wearing alloy brass. One
of the electrodes of a zinc-carbon battery. Zinc oxide is
used in paints, rubber and plastic additives and as inert
filler in electrical components. Zinc sulphide is used in
luminous paint, X-ray and TV screens and fluorescent lights.
Basic zinc carbonate is used medicinally as an external
application called calamine lotion for treating sunburn,
sore skin and dermatitis. |
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