VISIBLE LIGHT - ray box experiments - prism effects and the visible spectrum
IGCSE AQA GCSE Physics Edexcel GCSE Physics OCR GCSE
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Doc Brown's school physics revision notes: GCSE
physics, IGCSE physics, O level physics, ~US grades 8, 9 and 10
school science courses or equivalent for ~14-16 year old students of
physics
Refraction and diffraction of light, constructing ray diagrams, explanations
This page will answer many questions e.g. How do draw ray diagrams for visible
light ray refraction experiments? How do we explain refraction by light waves? How do you explain diffraction of light
waves? Why and how does a triangular prism
produce a 'rainbow of colours'?
Sub-index for this page
(a)
Investigating refraction: air-prism or water interface, total
internal reflection - fibre optics
(b)
The
visible spectrum of light and triangular prism experiments
(c)
Investigating diffraction of light
(d)
Examples of the overlap of reflection and refraction at an interface
See also
Reflection, visible light,
ray box experiments, ray diagrams, mirror uses
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(a)
Investigating REFRACTION:
air-block prism, air-water, total internal reflection - fibre optics
Know and
understand that waves can undergo a change of
direction when they are refracted at an interface.
Refraction: The bending of the
light ray at an interface between two media of different density.
Some sketches of light rays passing through
transparent blocks or prisms (glass or Perspex).
Know that light waves are
not refracted if travelling along the normal (diagram 1 below).

1. No refraction when a light
ray strikes a different medium at 90o to the surface ie 'down'
the normal.
The same applies to 3 and 5 for the
central ray in the diagram.
However, do not assume nothing
happens! There are changes in the wavelength and speed of light, but NOT
the frequency of the light rays.
2. Double refraction through a
rectangular glass block at the air/glass interfaces, note that when the ray
emerges back into air its path is parallel to the original incident ray.
3. Refraction of
light rays at the
two surfaces
of a diverging
concave lens.
4.
Refraction of light rays at two
of the surfaces of
a triangular glass or plastic prism.
5.
Refraction of light rays at the two surfaces of a converging concave
lens.
Two examples of light rays bending
when passing from one medium to another
1.
2.
These are two examples of refraction
- light ray direction changes at a boundary between two transparent
mediums of different density - in this case air/glass/water.
1. The light rays from the graph
paper are refracted at the boundary interfaces by both the glass and
water when entering them from the air and exiting into the air.
Note the magnification as the cylindrical glass of
water is acting like a fat convex lens!
2. The pencil in
the water seems to be bent because the emerging light rays from it
are refracted (bent) at
the interface boundary between the water and air.
The end of the pencil under
water, doesn't seem to be in the right place!
A full explanation of this
phenomena is given further down in this section.
Looking in detail at two refractions situations involving visible light
Be aware that when light rays hit a boundary
between two different mediums (two materials, some of the wave energy is
reflected, some transmitted - refracted and some absorbed -
you should be aware of all three possibilities. (See
reflection
page)
I refer to them as refraction A and
refraction B
The speed of light varies with the medium it
is travelling through and this has important consequences for the behaviour of
light when passing through a boundary between two transparent media of different
densities.
Examples of the speed of light in different
materials:
Vacuum (no material substance) and air
(very low density) ~3.00 x 108 m/s.
Glass is ~1.97 108 m/s,
Perspex ~2.01 x 108 m/s, diamond 1.24 x 108 m/s
Waves travel at different speeds in
different materials and this can result in a change of direction as the
waves pass through a boundary from one material to another.
This change in direction at the boundary
between two media is called refraction.
Refraction A: When light waves passing
through a less dense medium, hit a boundary interface (not at 90o
to it), and on entering a
more dense medium, the light waves 'bend towards the normal' ie refraction
occurs.
Refraction of light rays A from a less dense medium to a more dense medium
This happens because on
entering the more dense medium, the light waves are slowed down causing the change
in wave direction at the boundary interface - ray bent towards the normal.
Diagram above, and the left of the diagram below.
Refraction of light
B is discussed later, but it is the opposite situation to refraction of
light A.
Comparing refractions A and B
The above diagram illustrates the scientific model of the wave theory of refraction
of light.
You can think of the
parallel lines as representing a series of points of maximum amplitude
of the light waves (rather like the crests of waves eg think
waves in a ripple tank, waves on the sea or ripples in a pond on throwing a stone in).
Wave theory of refraction
A (light rays-waves passing from a less dense to a more dense medium):
Refraction A happens because the
wavefronts of the light rays are NOT parallel to the interface boundary
so the first section of a wavefront to hit the interface is slowed down
on entering the more dense medium. BUT, the other section of the
wavefront is moving at the original faster speed and is skewed around
producing the change in direction. So it is this decrease in speed that
causes the change in direction, and, in this case, the skewing round
causes the refracted ray to bend towards the normal.
You can also see that in refraction A the wavelength
is decreased as well as the velocity.
The frequency does NOT change.
speed of light = frequency x
wavelength, in 'symbolic shorthand'
v = f x λ
(see
wave calculations)
If the frequency (f) does not
change, then the velocity (v) is directly proportional to wavelength
(λ).
The bigger the change in speed the
bigger the change in direction - the greater the angle of refraction.
The obvious examples in your school/college
laboratory are the optics experiments you do in passing light rays passing from air into more dense
transparent triangular or rectangular plastic/glass blocks or triangular prisms.
As long as the material is transparent
and more dense than air you get refraction of light, as long as the incident
light rays strike the interface at any angle other than at 90o
(angle of the normal).
You see this effect in ripple tank
experiments when you abruptly go from deeper water to shallower
water the waves will change direction towards the normal.
The
waves slow down in shallower
water and if they hit the shallower water at an angle, refraction
will occur.
The waves slow down in shallower
water because of increased friction with the bottom surface of the ripple tank.
In the ripple tank the refraction of the
water waves has
nothing to do with density, but is caused by increased friction -
increase in the 'drag' effect.
You can observe the change in speed and
wavelength of water waves in a ripple tank by
placing a rectangular plate in to the water at an angle to the waves and you
can see these changes in wavelength and speed. BUT, by using a
stroboscope you can show the frequency does not change.
For ripple tank experiments see
Introduction to Waves - Ripple Tank
Experiments
Extra notes on refraction A - with refraction experiments, and real life
too, you often get reflection too e.g.
Light rays passing from a less dense medium to a more dense transparent
medium.
You ay 2 refracted. You do get
some reflection too, ray 1. You see reflections on water and in shop
windows.
Note again that when light rays hit a
boundary between two mediums, some of the wave energy is reflected, some
transmitted - refracted and some absorbed - you should be aware of all three
possibilities.
Refraction B: When light
waves from a more dense medium, hit a boundary interface (not at 90o
to it), and on entering a
less dense medium, the light waves 'bend away from the normal' i.e. refraction
occurs.
This happens because on
entering the less dense medium, the light waves can speed up causing the change in
wave direction - light rays bent away from the normal.
The obvious examples you see
in optics experiments are light rays emerging from transparent plastic
blocks or triangular and rectangular glass prisms, and passing out into
less dense air.
Refraction
of light rays B from a more dense medium to a less dense medium
Diagram above and right of diagram below. Diagram
refraction A has been previously discussed, but here refraction
B is
the opposite situation to refraction A.
Comparing refractions A and B
The above diagram illustrates the scientific model of the wave theory of refraction.
Wave theory of refraction
B (light rays-waves passing from a more dense to a less dense medium):
Refraction B happens because the
wavefronts of the light rays are NOT parallel to the interface boundary so
the first section of a wavefront to hit the interface is speeded up on
entering the less dense medium. BUT, the other section of the wavefront is
moving at the original slower speed and is skewed around producing the
change in direction. So it is this increase in speed that causes the change
in direction, and, in this case, the skewing round causes the refracted ray
to bend away from the normal.
You can also see that in refraction B the wavelength
has increased as well as the velocity.
The frequency does NOT change.
speed of light
= frequency x wavelength, in 'symbolic shorthand'
v = f x
λ (see
wave calculations)
If the frequency (f) does not
change, then velocity (v) is directly proportional to wavelength
(λ).
The bigger the change in speed the
bigger the change in direction - the greater the angle of refraction of
the light rays.
You see this effect in ripple tank
experiments when you abruptly go from shallower water to deeper
water the waves will change direction away from the normal.
The
waves speed up in deeper
water and if they hit the deeper water at an angle, refraction will
occur.
The waves speed up in deeper water because
of decreased friction with the bottom surface of the ripple tank.
In this example the refraction has
nothing to do with density, but is refraction caused by decrease in friction -
reduction of the 'drag' effect.
You can observe this in a ripple tank by
placing a rectangular plate in to the water at an angle to the waves and you
can see these changes in wavelength and speed. BUT, by using a
stroboscope you can show the frequency does not change.
For ripple tank experiments see
Introduction to Waves - Ripple Tank
Experiments
Extra notes on refraction B - with refraction
experiments, and real life too, you often get reflection too e.g.
Light rays passing from a more dense medium to a less dense transparent
medium.
The concept of
total internal reflection
needs to be introduced here
Note: Ray 2 refracted. You do get
some reflection too, ray 1.
For glass, if the internal angle of
incidence is over 43o you get total internal reflection and
ray 2 doesn't exist.
This particular angle when the refracted
ray travels along the boundary is called the critical angle.
e.g. when the angle of incidence in a
medium such as water, glass or plastic, reaches a certain critical value,
the refracted ray lies along the boundary, having an angle of refraction
of 90-degrees.
This angle of incidence is known as
the critical angle; it is the largest angle of incidence for which
refraction can still occur - even if it seems strange that some of
the ray travels along the boundary!
The diagram below illustrates these
points.
Situation A: The angle of
incidence i1 is less than the critical angle
Most of the light ray is refracted
at the media boundary.
The angle of refraction is >i1 but
<90o (from more to less dense medium).
The refracted ray bends away from the
normal when entering a less dense medium.
Some of the light is internally
reflected - but not totally.
When the angle of incidence is
less than the critical angle, little reflection takes place.
Situation B: The angle of
incidence i2 equals the critical angle
Although some of the light is still
internally reflected, most of the ray is refracted through an angle
of 90o and travels along the boundary.
The angle of refraction is >i2 but
= 90o.
When the angle of incidence is
equal to the critical angle, much more reflection takes place - but
still not total.
Situation C: The angle of
incidence i3 is greater than the critical angle
No refraction takes place and
the ray is totally internally reflected.
When the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle,
total internal reflection occurs.
This phenomenon is exploited when
glass fibres (optic fibres) are used to transmit information using
infrared.
Every transparent material has its own
critical angle.
Glass can range from 30o
to 42o, Perspex plastic 42o, diamond 24o
and water 49o.
You
can investigate all of this behaviour with simple ray box experiments with glass blocks.
The property of total internal reflection
is used to transmit information through glass or plastic fibres using
infrared and visible light beams.
The angle of incidence of light/infrared
beam is always greater than the critical angle, so you always get total
internal reflection and no energy is lost to weaken the signal.
This
sort of internal reflection is part of the explanation of the
formation of a
rainbow.
The origin
of the optical illusion when observing an object at an angle in water.
When you observe an object
half in water and half in air e.g. poking a stick into still water, you
see a 'bent' distorted image, because, the light rays from the object
are bent at the air-water interface because of refraction.
If you think
of the actual object at the start of the incident ray, you think the object is
higher up to the right compared to where it actually is - just follow the line back from the
emerging refracted ray.
You are dealing with a 'real' (deeper) and 'apparent'
(shallower) depth - can be a bit disconcerting! and take care when diving into
swimming pools or off rocks at the seaside - the bottom might not be quite where
you think it is!
You can observe both refraction situations
A and B when doing the ray box light experiments with a transparent
rectangular block of glass or Perspex.
You do the experiment on white paper.
(i) Draw around the block with a
pencil.
(ii) Direct the beam of light through
the block at different angles.
(iii) For each angle mark on dots
where the rays enter and leave the glass block and join them up to
complete the ray diagram. Allow e.g. ~5 cm of dots on each side of the
block.
the green dotted vertical lines
are the two normals.
angles 1 and 3 are angles
of incidence
angles 2 and 4 are angles
of refraction
Remember, when a ray
enters a more dense medium (air ==> glass), the ray bends towards
the normal, and on entering a less dense medium (glass ==> air) the
ray bends away from the normal
there maybe a little
reflection of incident rays 1 and 3, but most of the rays are
refracted.

If the waves hit the
interface at an angle of 90o (perpendicular, diagram 1
above) to the
interface between the two mediums, there is still a change in speed and
wavelength, but there is NO change in direction, NO refraction and the wave frequency remains
the same. In all the other cases 2 to 4, refraction can occur.
Wave theory to explain what happens and what
doesn't happen.
A: When the waves pass from a less dense
medium to a more dense medium the waves decrease in velocity at the media
boundary and the
wavelength also decreases.
B: When the waves pass from a more dense
medium to a less dense medium the waves increase in velocity at the media
boundary and the
wavelength also increases.
In both cases the frequency of the light remains
unchanged and in both cases no refraction takes place - no change
in direction.
There is no refraction because the
wavefronts of the light rays are parallel to the interface boundary so no
section of a wavefront is skewed round because another section is NOT being
slowed down or speeded up on entering another transparent medium of
different density.
You can observe this in a ripple tank by
placing a rectangular plate in to the water parallel to the waves and you
can see these changes in wavelength and speed. BUT, by using a stroboscope,
you can show the frequency does not change.
TOP OF PAGE and
sub-index
(b) The
visible spectrum of light and triangular prism experiments
The refraction of a single wavelength light
ray by a 600 triangular prism.
You get refraction twice as the laser beam
passes through two boundaries.
From the diagram on the right:
1. air ==> glass: The light beam slows
down in the more dense glass, so the ray bends towards the normal.
angle of incidence i1 > angle of
refraction r1
2. glass ==> air: The light beam
speeds up in the less dense air, so the ray bends away from the normal.
angle of incidence i2 < angle of
refraction r2
2. is the opposite to refraction 1.
Note that when using a single wavelength of
light from a laser beam there is no splitting of the colour - contrast the above
diagram with the diagram below showing the dispersion of white light into all
its constituent colours - the visible spectrum.
The production of the visible spectrum
with a triangular prism - white light is dispersed into all its colours.
I remember it as VIBGYOR sounded
phonetically for violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
Important trend to know: violet
=== decreasing frequency, increasing wavelength ===> red
(The sequence is preceded by
invisible ultra-violet light and succeeded by invisible infra-red
light.)
The different colours we experience
are due to differences in photon energy, wavelength and frequency
(all of which are related), and this is irrespective of what medium the light
travels through - vacuum, air, glass, anything transparent.
However, in a vacuum or in air (very
low density) all the colours have the same speed.
BUT, in dense transparent materials like
glass the speed of each colour actually varies.
The shorter the wavelength of the
light colour, the slower
the light colour travels in dense materials.
The slower the light travels the more
it is refracted when passing through a media boundary to a more dense
medium - the smaller the
angle of refraction.
Therefore the shorter wavelength violet
light is refracted much more than the longer wavelength red light.
The rule is illustrated by the diagram
below and it should correspond to the diagram above on how to produce
the spectrum of visible light with a triangular glass/Perspex prism.
It is this difference in the
degree of refraction of each colour that allows a prism to separate the
colours and produce the 'rainbow' of light we call the visible spectrum.
The wave theory of refraction
explains why you can produce the visible spectrum in this way.
Section
Refraction A explains the 1st refraction (air to Δ glass
prism) and
Refraction B explains the 2nd
refraction (Δ glass prism to air).
Therefore when white light passes through
the ∆ prism all the different colours separate out to
give the visible spectrum.
The theory behind
the formation of the visible spectrum (refer
to diagram below too)
This spreading out
into the different colours due to different refraction angles is called
dispersion to give what we refer to as the visible spectrum of light.
You can
demonstrate the above diagram with the ray box experiments by passing
the white light beam through different coloured filters and measuring
the angles of the refracted rays.
With the
triangular prism you will observe different angles for different colours
from the double refraction effects.
However, with a
rectangular block, all the different coloured rays will emerge at the
same angle. This is because there
are two parallel surfaces and the two refraction effects at the two
parallel interfaces cancel each other out.
The shape of the
prism allows two sets of refractions to take place and give a greater
spread of the different wavelengths of the colours.
When the light
enters the prism the rays bend towards the normal after the boundary -
the first refraction is from a less dense to a more dense medium (waves
slowing down).
When the light
exits the prism the rays bend away from the normal after the boundary -
the second refraction is from a more dense to a less dense medium (waves
speeding up).
At both
boundaries, the colours have different speeds and so refract at
different angles - that's what causes them to spread out or
disperse. In any liquid or solid material ...
the shorter
the wavelength the slower the rays-waves move in the material, and
...
... the
shorter the wavelength the greater the change in speed, so the
greater the angle the light rays-waves are deviated or diffracted.
A nice visible light spectrum from a glass
pendant hanging up by a brightly sunlit window.
Spectroscopy
In the past 60o triangular prisms
have been used in emission
spectrometers for analysing light from high temperature sources like stars.
However, these days diffraction gratings are used to separate the different
wavelengths of visible light.
The formation of a rainbow
- you need to refer to the diagram above too.

The
formation of a rainbow can be partly explained by considering a water
droplet to behave like a prism. It involves refraction and reflection. I've just used
a red, green and blue ray diagram to give (I hope!) the basic ideas to explain how a rainbow
is formed.
Imagine a ray of sunlight entering the water drop at point A. On
going from less dense air to more dense water refraction occurs at the boundary.
The shorter wavelength blue light slows down more and refracts at a greater
angle - the order being blue > green > red. You may of course get some
reflection too, but lets concentrate on the refracted rays.
At point B, some internal reflection occurs inside the water
drop (and maybe some refraction).
At point C a second refraction takes place as the rays move from
a more dense medium to a less dense medium. A second dispersion takes place to
produce the final rainbow effect of the visible spectrum. You may also get
internal reflection too.
If you understand the prism experiment to
produce the visible spectrum, you should have no trouble in having some idea on
how a rainbow is formed - but it is not a true visible spectrum - there are
many complications which we don't need to go into in detail. BUT, the ray
diagram explains the general idea of why you get a separation of white
light into the colours of a rainbow - due to different angles of refraction of
the different colours.
Further notes (NOT needed for a
GCSE physics exam, just for the more curious!)
However, the light rays are hitting the
water drop over half of its surface, and, depending on the angle of
incidence, you may get reflection, refraction or both at each interface (air
==> water and water ==> air). You should realise that the colours in the
diagram do not match the order in the rainbow. The different colours
actually come from raindrops at different heights, so although the
refraction angles are different the rainbow seems to come from
one narrow band in the sky.
In other words there are lots of
other complications in what actually happens when sunlight passes through raindrops.
Also, what you see is only part of the rainbow. It is actually a full disc,
but you only see half a circle because of the ground and your own specific
viewing angle!
The photograph is actually of a
double rainbow. If the sun is at a low angle, you can sometimes get other internal reflections
and a second lot of refractions producing a fainter
secondary rainbow. If you look carefully, the colours are reversed - another
complication! The two figures
were added for human interest when taking the
photograph at Blackrock, Co. Louth, in Ireland in 2005.
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(c) Investigating
the DIFFRACTION
of light
A ray box system is no good for investigating
the diffraction of light.
Instead, you can use water waves in a ripple
tank.
Remember both light and 'ripples' are transverse waves.
So, in effect, you are using water waves to
model light waves.
(You can of course investigate reflection and
refraction with the ripple tank too.)

Diffraction is the effect
of waves spreading out when passing through a gap or passing by a barrier.
In effect, waves go round corners! and it doesn't matter if its sound, light
or water waves - they all diffract and bend round corners! The effect is so
small with light (tiny wavelength), you don't notice it, but you see water
waves bending around walls of a harbour and you can hear sounds from
round a corner.
You should appreciate that
significant diffraction only occurs when the wavelength of the wave is of
the same order of magnitude as the size of the gap or obstacle.
A: There is a relatively small
diffraction effect when waves pass through a wide gap that is much bigger
than the wavelength of the wave.
B: You get the maximum spreading
or diffraction when the light waves pass through a gap of similar size to the
wavelength of the incident waves.
You can see these effects with transverse
water waves at the seaside as waves hit the protective walls of a harbour
BUT you need a very tiny slit to observe diffraction with light waves
because of their tiny wavelength.
Can you observe the diffraction of light?
When you hold up a fine needle towards a
bright light, the edges aren't quite sharp because the light rays are
diffracting (bending) around the pin's surface.
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sub-index
(d)
The overlap of reflection and refraction at an interface
Ray analysis diagram for less dense to a more dense medium
Light ray passing through an interface from air into
water (same for glass or plastic rectangular prisms)
When an incident ray of light hits a water or glass surface
at the sort of angle illustrated, most of the light passes through
the air-water interface and refracted, but a little is reflected.
Ray 1 is a correct 'fainter' reflected light ray
(angle of incidence = angle of reflection).
Ray 2 is an incorrect reflected ray (angle i
does not equal angle r).
Ray 3 is an incorrect refracted ray (bends away
from the 'normal').
Ray 4 is a correct refracted ray (on
entering a more dense medium the ray is bends towards the
'normal', angle of incidence > angle of refraction).
Ray analysis diagram for a more dense to a less dense medium.
Light ray passing through an interface from water
(same for glass or plastic rectangular prisms) out into air.
In the diagram an incident ray of light hits a transparent surface
at the sort of angle illustrated, most of the light passes through
the air-water interface and refracted, but a little is reflected.
Ray 1 is an incorrect refracted ray (bends
towards the 'normal')
Ray 2 is the correct refracted ray (on
entering a less dense medium, the ray bends away from the
'normal', angle of incidence < angle of refraction).
Ray 3 is an incorrect reflected ray (angle i
does not equal angle r).
Ray 4 is the 'fainter' but correct reflected
ray (angle of incidence = angle of reflection).
Reflection in a silvered thick glass plane mirror
Rather more complex than you imagine, involving both
reflection and refraction.
Ray line 1 represents an incident visible light ray in
air.
Ray line 2 is the first refraction, bending towards the
normal in a more dense medium (glass).
Ray line 3 is the reflected ray from the ray line 2
(angle of incidence = angle of reflection on the silvered surface).
Ray line 4 is the direct reflection of ray line 1 (no
refraction involved).
Ray line 5 is the refraction of ray line 3 (refracted
ray bends away from the 'normal' in a less dense medium).
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Some learning objectives for
this page
-
Know and understand that visible light can be sent
along optical fibres because of total internal reflection.
-
The laser as an energy source
for cutting, cauterising and burning.
-
You should know about its application
and use in eye surgery,
-
but knowledge of how lasers work is not required.
Check out your
practical work you did or teacher demonstrations you observed, all of this is part of good revision for your
module examination context questions and helps with 'how science works'.
experiments - investigation of refraction using a ray box
carrying out refraction investigations using a glass block
or triangular prism
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WAVES - electromagnetic radiation, sound, optics-lenses, light and astronomy revision notes index
General
introduction to the types and properties of waves, ripple tank expts, how to do
wave calculations
Illuminated & self-luminous objects, reflection visible light,
ray box experiments, ray diagrams, mirror uses
Refraction and diffraction, the visible light
spectrum, prism investigations, ray diagrams explained
gcse physics
Electromagnetic spectrum,
sources, types, properties, uses (including medical) and dangers gcse physics
The absorption and emission of radiation by
materials - temperature & surface factors including global warming
See also
Global warming, climate change,
reducing our carbon footprint from fossil fuel burning gcse
chemistry
Optics - types of lenses (convex, concave, uses),
experiments and ray
diagrams, correction of eye defects
The visible spectrum of colour, light filters and
explaining the colour of objects gcse physics revision notes
Sound waves, properties explained, speed measure,
uses of sound, ultrasound, infrasound, earthquake waves
The Structure of the Earth, crust, mantle, core and earthquake waves (seismic wave
analysis)
gcse notes
Astronomy - solar system, stars, galaxies and
use of telescopes and satellites gcse physics revision notes
The life cycle of stars - mainly worked out from emitted
electromagnetic radiation gcse physics revision notes
Cosmology - the
Big Bang Theory of the Universe, the red-shift & microwave background radiation gcse
physics
IGCSE revision
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